The political situation facing the United States Forest Service

Congressional hearings pertaining to national forest management, timber sales, the National Forest Management Act (NFMA), and the Resources Planning Act (RPA) were censused and subjected to content analysis. Trends in interest group attitudes toward the Forest Service, as revealed by their formal position statements to Congress, were identified for the period 1984 to 1993. The resulting quantitative data were converted into percent pro and con values and plotted over time. Industry support has waned, and although positive responses from environmental groups have increased, they have not been enough to offset the industry decline. Opinions toward management issues have shown the greatest shift, while attitudes regarding timber sales and NFMA/RPA have remained relatively uniform throughout the time period. This analysis suggests that the United States Forest Service has lost an element of leverage in its dealings with Congress. As its programs have become broader, its support from interest groups has weakened. Research Assistant Professor and Department Head.     

新西兰森林采伐管理制度与借鉴

森林采伐管理是森林资源管理的核心内容之一。在计划经济条件下制定的中国森林采伐管理制度对于森林资源保护起到了重要作用。但是, 随着市场经济不断完善、集体林权制度改革不断深入, 这种管理制度已经不适应现代林业发展的需要, 亟待完善。分析了新西兰在森林采伐方面实施的分类采伐管理、森林可持续经营计划、森林可持续经营许可证、年度采伐计划等管理措施, 期望能为完善中国森林采伐管理制度提供参考模式和经验借鉴。     

新西兰森林火险等级系统及预测应用

新西兰是森林火灾多发的国家,由于近年来气候变化导致新西兰火灾季节延长且火灾频发。探究新西兰火险等级体系的火天气指数和火行为分析模型,可以用于模拟历史、当前和未来的火险。文中对新西兰火险等级、火行为分析模型以及用于监测当前火险的火天气系统进行了探讨,认为开展相关火行为模拟研究是上述3种管理工具的研发基础,并且可以确保火险信息的有效性和准确性。不同植被的火行为是林火管理系统的重要输入因子,当前的天气、火行为和火险由新西兰国家乡村消防局进行每日更新并通过网络发布给全国的防火机构和公众,用于中、短期防火管理计划的实施。这些火行为模型已经成为新西兰很多火管理决策支持工具的基础。新西兰气象局把火天气指标系统和他们的预测模型结合起来,产生每小时的预测图用于短期计划和应急管理。借鉴新西兰的森林火险等级系统可以为我国构建完备的国家火险等级预报系统提供技术参考,而且探讨世界各国火险等级体系和火险模型可以促进我国与世界各国森林火险信息平台共享,提高预测和应对重特大森林火灾的能力,减少森林资源的损失,助力我国“双碳”目标的实现。     

Public Involvement in Forest Management Planning

Summary

In 1997, the US Forest Service initiated public involvement processes in three national forests in the northeastern United States-the Finger Lakes National Forest in central New York, the Green Mountain National Forest in Vermont, and the White Mountain National Forest in New Hampshire and Maine. Citizens' perspectives were sought on forest management prior to determining the changes needed for revising the Land and Resource Management Plans (Forest Plans) as well as to exchange information on management of these three forests. These processes represent a pro-active effort by the US Forest Service to engage communities of interest in dialogue about the management of these national forests. The Forest Service has emphasized the principles of ecosystem management and community partnership in developing these plans. The paper describes the policy framework for forest planning and an outline of the Plan Revision process as developed in the Northeast. It further offers a preliminary analysis of this approach, including lessons to date, their implication for subsequent phases of plan revision processes in the Northeast, and possible relevance for agencies embarking on similar public planning initiatives.     

美国国有林的发展与对策

文章回顾了美国国有林的发展历程,并介绍了一些重大历史事件。作者着重阐明了美国国有林的管理体制和技术经济政策。     

美国木材生产、自然保护之争与林业发展道路

本文是对赵士洞、陈华两先生《新林业》一文(见本刊1991年第1期)的补充,从另一个侧面介绍美国林业生产与自然保护之间的斗争实质。林务局《新远景》计划三种模式林业,勾绘了又一个美国林业发展思路。中国林业面临的问题远比美国复杂得多。新理论既要兼顾生产与生态环境,又必须便于操作,经济上可行。     

美国森林服务管理经验与启示

森林服务管理是融合了生态效益、社会效益、经济效益的管理科学。目标是环境可持续发展、创造社会生产力和服务公众利益，以满足现在和未来人类对环境的需求。美国林务局作为美国森林服务管理的责任机构，其管理水平一直处于世界领先地位。文中从美国林务局历史演变、机构设置、管理模式、服务领域和战略规划等方面对美国森林服务管理模式进行概括和梳理；分析其管理模式的优越性和先进性；提出对完善我国森林服务管理的启示:加大科技投入，健全政策法规，发挥森林多功能效益。     

The Magna Charta of Environmental Legislation: A historical look at 30 years of NEPA-Forest Service Litigation

The National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) of 1970 changed the landscape of natural resource management by requiring federal agencies to assess the environmental consequences of their proposed actions and to include the public in their decision-making processes. Of all federal agencies in the United States, the Forest Service prepares the most Environmental Impact Statements under NEPA. The U.S. Forest Service manages the National Forest System, public forestlands comprising approximately 9% of the United States land area. The overall objectives of this study were to (1) determine the litigants, success rates, and management activities disputed for NEPA litigation involving the Forest Service from 1970 to 2001 and (2) examine differences and patterns in cases among the U.S. District, Circuit, and Supreme Courts. Methods include a historical analysis of published court cases and results show an increasing trend in the number of NEPA-Forest Service cases in the federal courts. Environmental groups were the most common litigants in NEPA-Forest Service cases and timber harvesting, management plans, and endangered species were the subject of the majority of cases in both the U.S. District Court and the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. The Forest Service won a preponderance of cases in which they were involved with success rates of 60% in U.S. District Court, 57% in the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals, and 100% in the U.S. Supreme Court.     

Forest Policy Evolution in Poland

Abstract

In Europe, intensive forest management has anteceded a long history of intensive exploitation. The result has been the replacement of natural forests with highly productive albeit more vulnerable forests of simplified structure. Polish forestry has followed this same pattern and the country has seen a substantial increase in forest cover over the last 50 years. The main challenge for Polish forest management comes in trying to meet growing demand for wood products while responding to increased public demand for conservation of environmental values. Poland's new Forest Act for the first time puts environmental social and productive values of the forest on an equal footing. Within the framework of the Act. the Polish Policy of Sustainable Forest Development puts special emphasis on protection of biological diversity and the promotion of environmentally safe technologies and practices. The concept of Forest Promotion Areas is the major element of the Policy. The challenge for Forest Promotion Areas and for Model Forests will be to bring together all the necessary elements: environmental, economic and social that will allow sustainable development in its broadest sense.     

Forest Health and Wildlife Habitat Management on the Boise National Forest,Idaho

The National Forest Management Act (NFMA) requires the Forest Service to provide for diversity of plant and animal communities and maintain viable wildlife populations. Changes in forest stand structure, species composition and disturbance patterns within ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa)-Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) habitat types on the Boise National Forest make it difficult to meet NFMA direction. Three management strategies, including "no action," were evaluated in terms of the risk of wildfire's effects on plant community diversity and distrbution, dispersal, and local population viability for the pileated woodpecker (Dryocopus pileatus) and flammulated owl (Otus flammeolus). The no action alternative appeared to have the greatest long-term risk to plant community diversity and wildlife species distribution and dispersal. Landscape analysis that considers the capabilities and risks associated with different-management strategies is recommended to meet NFMA direction while responding to diverse public expectations of the Forest.     

分类经营:新西兰林业的实践与借鉴

新西兰70年一贯制的多效林业经营模式, 在创造了人工林奇迹的同时亦带来了林业持续发展的政策危机和效益危机。新西兰林业分类经营近10年的实践初步成功, 是建立在人工林集约经营和政府扶持基础上的, 是以新西兰林产工业的市场培育和出口导向为动力的。比较借鉴:建议从集约经营工业人工林入手, 为我国林业的分类经营奠定坚实的基础;建议从提高林产工业产业素质入手, 为分类经营的实现培育市场。     

Indentation of wood by wedges

Summary The deformation processes involved in wedge indentation of wood are described. The behaviour of wood is compared to that of an elastic-plastic solid and that of a cellular body. It approximates towards the former when its density is high and towards the latter when its density is low. The hardness of wood is examined as a function of density and of wedge angle.We wish to thank the University Grants Committee and the New Zealand Forest Service for supporting this work     

Forest governance and sustainability pathways in the absence of a comprehensive national forest policy — The case of New Zealand

A ‘pathways’ and ‘framings’ approach derived from Leach et al. (2010) is used to examine forest sustainability policy in New Zealand. The country has had no comprehensive forest policy since the 1990s and indeed no longer a forest service or its equivalent. Instead ‘forest’ preservation, policy, and monitoring functions are carried out by the Department of Conservation, Ministry of Primary Industry and Ministry of Environment. Exotic plantation forests have themselves been sold off to the private sector and some aspects of planting and harvesting are regulated by the Resource Management Act. Even in this Neo-Liberal setting, and similar to Leach et al.'s work in completely different contexts, policy responses have tended to be oriented towards ‘stability’ and ‘resilience’ types of forest sustainability. Three forest sustainability pathways are evident, directed towards preservation of indigenous biodiversity, economic development without adverse environmental impacts, and monitoring of environmental quality. In some ways the current ‘New Zealand forest governance model’ is an improvement on its predecessor but it seems unlikely to be mobile in a policy sense, resting as it does on the existence a relatively large area of indigenous forest and a large exotic plantation resource where the latter provides all timber needs.     

The New Zealand forestry sector's experience in providing carbon sequestration services under the New Zealand Emissions Trading Scheme, 2008 to 2012

The New Zealand government established the New Zealand Emissions Trading scheme (NZ ETS) as the primary mechanism for achieving New Zealand's Kyoto obligations between 2008 and 2012. The legislation made planted forests the first sector to participate in the NZ ETS, starting in 2008. At the same time, other schemes to encourage carbon sequestration through forestry were also implemented.The implementation of the NZ ETS has focussed on meeting New Zealand's international obligations between 2008 and 2012 at minimum cost, and there is little evidence it has led to any reduction in greenhouse gas emissions or investment in new planted forests in New Zealand. The NZ ETS has been most effective at facilitating the transfer of international (Kyoto compliant) carbon credits from emitters to the New Zealand government. These credits have been used to partially meet New Zealand's obligations for the first Kyoto commitment period, allowing other units to be carried over to meet obligations from 2013 to 2020.The paper shows that participation in the NZ ETS is unlikely to contribute a long-term positive impact on profitability of commercial forestry, and that the liabilities created through participation in the NZ ETS do not assist the development of the forestry sector in New Zealand. The paper suggests that the NZ ETS is not the correct policy instrument to encourage carbon sequestration by planted forests.     

Policy analysis of a government-sanctioned management plan for a community-owned forest in Romania

Forest management in Romania is based on sustained yield. However, the current sustained-yield policy may be outdated and may not be the best way of achieving Romania's intended objectives of biological sustainability and community stability. The existing policy also does not incorporate objectives consistent with Romania's new economic and social systems. We examine the potential economic net benefits from timber harvests that could result from changes to the existing sustained-yield policy by comparing the state-approved management plan of a community forest with three alternative forest management plans. We find that the three alternatives appreciably increase the potential economic net benefits. Certain aspects of these alternative plans deviate from Romania's current sustained-yield criteria; however, the costs associated with changes to the current regime could be balanced by the economic net benefits of implementing an alternative management plan. To employ the same static forest management policy throughout time without adapting to a dynamic socio-economic environment will likely lead to inefficient, ineffective, and unproductive utilization of Romania's forest resources.     

The Forest of Dean--Forest Park

The Forest of Dean has been an area of outstanding nationaleconomic importance because of its mineral wealth and timberresources. Iron ore had been mined and smelted with the aidof charcoal since the earliest times. Coal-mining subsequentlybecame a major industry in the nineteenth century and coke replacedcharcoal in the ironworks. Exploitation of the timber resourcesof the Forest reached its peak in the middle of the seventeenthcentury. This was accentuated by excessive grazing of sheep,pigs, and other animals. There was national concern for thedisappearing supplies of naval ship-timber. This culminatedin the Dean Forest (Reafforestation) Act of 1668 Forest management had its ups and downs. The Napoleonic Warsmade tremendous demands on the Dean oak and the nineteenth centurysaw a new wave of reafforestation and the tending of oak speciallyfor shipbuilding. Unfortunately the demand for oak ship-timberceased about the middle of the century because of the developmentof iron warships. The twentieth century has not only seen twoworld wars deplete the Forest of its timber but has witnessedthe introduction of planned forest management and the large-scaleuse of conifers, some of which are particularly suited to theDean environment. More than half the woodland is now stockedwith conifers but there have been amenity safeguards and theeffect is not unpleasing.     

Reprint of: When peer-reviewed publications are not enough! Delivering science for natural resource management

Over the last century, natural resource management on forest lands has shifted from a singular focus on resource extraction to many foci, such as recreation, tourism, conservation, view-scapes, cultural and spiritual values, sustainability, and other values. As a result, the information needs of land managers must now include social and cultural values. In addition, the public's interest in having greater participation in land management decisions and in generating scientific knowledge has never been greater. The generation of scientific knowledge which is expressed primarily through conventional means – such as peer-reviewed publications targeting academics and technology transfer (e.g., patents, licenses, agreements) primarily for government and industry – does not always satisfy the needs of resource managers and public. In recent decades, there has been rapid growth of methods to help bridge this gap by better connecting new knowledge and knowledge generation with public needs. The U.S. Forest Service is making science delivery as important goal as science creation, including structural institutional changes at the interface among researchers, resource managers, and the public, allocating an appropriate portion of project funding specifically for delivery. The Forest Service is considering increasing its use of citizen science and participatory research – which brings resource managers, decision makers, and the public into the research process to varying extents – as part of the agency's science delivery efforts. Here we explore citizen science and participatory research as possible vehicles to augment existing science delivery efforts from the perspective of a federal land management agency. We found that these mechanisms facilitate public involvement in fundamentally different ways. Depending on the type of research and desired use of research outcomes, either citizen science or participatory research could enhance the use of science in some natural resource management discussions, possibly leading to supportable solutions.     

Participatory Research for Adaptive Ecosystem Management

Summary

Participatory research involves members of interested communities who work with researchers to apply their joint skills and experience to explore issues of mutual concern. There is an increasingly explicit federal mandate for participatory research efforts involving stakeholder groups in public land management. This paper presents a case study of one effort ongoing in the Hayfork Adaptive Management Area (AMA) on the Six Rivers and Shasta-Trinity national forests of northern California. There, a network of U.S. Forest Service staff, scientists, local nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and nontimber forest product harvesters (wildcrafters) has been working to address ecological, economic, and social aspects of harvesting nontimber forest products (NTFP) from public land. This paper discusses the challenges of NTFP management on public lands and analyzes participatory research as an approach for addressing some of these challenges.     

再谈美国木材生产、自然保护之争与林业发展道路

二战以后,美国关于木材生产与自然保护之争从未间断过。１９９３年克林顿总统亲自发布“太平洋西北地区原始林经营计划”,希望结束旷日持久的争论。从１９８５年Ｆｒａｎｋｌｉｎ教授创立“新林业”理论,经１９９０年林务局制定“新远景”计划,到１９９３年克林顿政府明确“森林生态系统经营”为国有林经营的指导思想,还不能让争论休止。