HIGH QUALITY DEVELOPMENTAL APPROACH FOR SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION AND ECOLOGICAL PROTECTION ON THE LOESS PLATEAU

● Analyse the effects of ecological management measures undertaken so far. ● Point out the main problems that confront effective ecological management. ● Suggest some measures to guide ecological management and high-quality development. ● Develop some models to improve the quality of clear waters and green mountains. ● Provide scientific and technological support for green and eco-friendly development. The Loess Plateau is the core area in the Yellow River basin for implementing environmental protection and high-quality development strategies. A series of ecological projects has implemented aimed at soil and water conservation and ecological management on the Loess Plateau over the past 70 years. The effects of the ecological projects are apparent mainly through a marked increase in vegetation cover, controlled soil erosion and reduced flow of sediment into the Yellow River, continual optimization of the industrial structure and increased production from arable land, poverty alleviation and greater prosperity, and optimal allocation of space for biological organisms. Major problems have also been analyzed in ecological management including the fragile ecosystem of the region, maintaining the stability of vegetation, lower agricultural productivity and continued risk from natural disasters. Some suitable schemes and models have been developed for the coordinated development of the region through research and demonstration, striking the optimum balance between rural industry and ecology, and increased regional capacity to supply high-quality ecological products. Countermeasures to address the problems are suggested to guide ecological management and high-quality development in the future.     

A NEW APPROACH TO HOLISTIC NITROGEN MANAGEMENT IN CHINA

● Progress on nitrogen management in agriculture is overviewed in China. ● 4R principles are key to high N use efficiency and low N losses in soil-crop systems. ● A new framework of food-chain-N-management is proposed. ● China’s success in N management provides models for other countries. Since the 1980s, the widespread use of N fertilizer has not only resulted in a strong increase in agricultural productivity but also caused a number of environmental problems, induced by excess reactive N emissions. A range of approaches to improve N management for increased agricultural production together with reduced environmental impacts has been proposed. The 4R principles (right product, right amount, right time and right place) for N fertilizer application have been essential for improving crop productivity and N use efficiency while reducing N losses. For example, site-specific N management (as part of 4R practice) reduced N fertilizer use by 32% and increased yield by 5% in China. However, it has not been enough to overcome the challenge of producing more food with reduced impact on the environment and health. This paper proposes a new framework of food-chain-nitrogen-management (FCNM). This involves good N management including the recycling of organic manures, optimized crop and animal production and improved human diets, with the aim of maximizing resource use efficiency and minimizing environmental emissions. FCNM could meet future challenges for food demand, resource sustainability and environmental safety, key issues for green agricultural transformation in China and other countries.     

ECOLOGICAL NETWORKS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS: APPROACHES AND APPLICATIONS

● Agricultural intensification reduced the complexity and connectance of soil food webs. ● Agricultural intensification impaired the robustness of pollination networks. ● High connectance in co-occurrence networks indicates efficient nutrient utilization. Complex network theory has been increasingly used in various research areas, including agroecosystems. This paper summarizes the basic concepts and approaches commonly used in complex network theory, and then reviews recent studies on the applications in agroecosystems of three types of common ecological networks, i.e., food webs, pollination networks and microbial co-occurrence networks. In general, agricultural intensification is considered to be a key driver of the change of agroecosystems. It causes the simplification of landscape, leads to the loss of biocontrol through cascading effect in food webs, and also reduces the complexity and connectance of soil food webs. For pollination networks, agricultural intensification impaired the robustness by reducing specialization and enhancing generality. The microbial co-occurrence networks with high connectance and low modularity generally corresponded to high efficiency in utilization of nutrients, and high resistance to crop pathogens. This review aims to show the readers the advances of ecological networks in agroecosystems and inspire the researchers to conduct their studies in a new network perspective.     

SOIL NITROGEN CYCLING AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS IN THE SUBTROPICAL HILLY REGION OF CHINA: EVIDENCE FROM MEASUREMENTS AND MODELING

● Soil nitrogen fluxes and influencing factors were reviewed in the subtropical hilly regions. ● Fertilizer application and atmospheric deposition contributed largely to soil nitrogen input. ● High gaseous, runoff and leaching losses of soil nitrogen were measured. ● Soil nitrogen cycles are well modelled with the Catchment Nutrients Management Model. The subtropical hilly region of China is a region with intensive crop and livestock production, which has resulted in serious N pollution in soil, water and air. This review summarizes the major soil N cycling processes and their influencing factors in rice paddies and uplands in the subtropical hilly region of China. The major N cycling processes include the N fertilizer application in croplands, atmospheric N deposition, biological N fixation, crop N uptake, ammonia volatilization, N₂O/NO emissions, nitrogen runoff and leaching losses. The catchment nutrients management model for N cycle modeling and its case studies in the subtropical hilly region were also introduced. Finally, N management practices for improving N use efficiency in cropland, as well as catchment scales are summarized.     

IMPROVING FERTILIZATION METHODS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION OF PEARL MILLET (PENNISETUM GLAUCUM) IN WEST AFRICA: A REVIEW

● Constraints in cultivation and production of pearl millet in West Africa are summarized. ● Production systems and fertilization methods in pearl millet production are highlighted. ● Sustainable production needs integrated cropping systems and fertilizer use efficiency. ● A holistic approach is required to establish a strong collaboration among rural actors. West African countries are among the larger global millet producers but have low yields mainly due to the low quality of their marginal soils. The objectives of this work were to analyze the benefits and constraints of pearl millet production, to summarize the impact of different cropping systems and fertilization modes while proposing a holistic approach for sustainable production. The major constraints on millet yields are low rates or absence of fertilizers, unsuitable cropping systems, and the proliferation of pests and diseases. Intercropping with cowpea is a widely used cropping system in addition to crop rotation, monocropping and agroforestry systems. Microdosing is the best fertilization mode for West African smallholders. It is concluded that integrated systems (breeding new cultivars, intercropping and microdosing) in tied ridges or infiltration pit practices, sustained by the implementation of innovative approaches such as the ‘Science and Technology Backyards’ from China are a promising approach for increasing pearl millet production. In addition, policies such as land protection of the farmers and subsidies of inputs from the government and the effective involvement of farmers and extension officers are necessary in sustaining millet production in West Africa.     

AGRONOMIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFITS OF REINTRODUCING HERB- AND LEGUME-RICH MULTISPECIES LEYS INTO ARABLE ROTATIONS: A REVIEW

● Arable-ley rotations can alleviate soil degradation and erosion. ● Multispecies leys can improve livestock health and reduce greenhouse gas emissions. ● Ley botanical composition is crucial for determining benefits. ● Lack of livestock infrastructure in arable areas may prevent arable-ley uptake. ● Long-term (10–25 years) research is needed to facilitate evidence-based decisions. Agricultural intensification and the subsequent decline of mixed farming systems has led to an increase in continuous cropping with only a few fallow or break years, undermining global soil health. Arable-ley rotations incorporating temporary pastures (leys) lasting 1–4 years may alleviate soil degradation by building soil fertility and improving soil structure. However, the majority of previous research on arable-ley rotations has utilized either grass or grass-clover leys within ungrazed systems. Multispecies leys, containing a mix of grasses, legumes, and herbs, are rapidly gaining popularity due to their promotion in agri-environment schemes and potential to deliver greater ecosystem services than conventional grass or grass-clover leys. Livestock grazing in arable-ley rotations may increase the economic resilience of these systems, despite limited research of the effects of multispecies leys on ruminant health and greenhouse gas emissions. This review aims to evaluate previous research on multispecies leys, highlighting areas for future research and the potential benefits and disbenefits on soil quality and livestock productivity. The botanical composition of multispecies leys is crucial, as legumes, deep rooted perennial plants (e.g., Onobrychis viciifolia and Cichorium intybus) and herbs (e.g., Plantago lanceolata) can increase soil carbon, improve soil structure, reduce nitrogen fertilizer requirements, and promote the recovery of soil fauna (e.g., earthworms) in degraded arable soils while delivering additional environmental benefits (e.g., biological nitrification inhibition and enteric methane reduction). Multispecies leys have the potential to deliver biologically driven regenerative agriculture, but more long-term research is needed to underpin evidence-based policy and farmer guidance.     

ENVIRONMENTAL ATTITUDES AND CONSUMER PREFERENCE FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY BEVERAGE PACKAGING: THE ROLE OF INFORMATION PROVISION AND IDENTITY LABELING IN INFLUENCING CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

● Consumer preference for environmentally-friendly beverage packaging was investigated. ● Consumers are willing to pay a premium for post-consumer recycled materials. ● Environmental information and green identity labels have synergistic effect on consumer willingness to pay. ● Product unit size seems irrelevant in most consumer decisions. This study examined whether urban Chinese consumers with stronger environmental values have higher valuations for plastic beverage bottles that are made of post-consumer recycled material (rPET) or that come in large sizes that use plastic more efficiently. It also assesses the effectiveness of environmental information provision and green identity labeling in increasing consumer willingness to pay for environmentally-friendly packaging. The results suggest that urban Chinese consumers are willing to pay a premium for rPET bottles, indicating that there is a potential market for rPET food and beverage packaging in China that calls for manufacturing guidelines, safety standards, or regulations. Providing environmental information and attaching green identity labels increases consumer valuations of rPET bottles, with their joint use exerting the largest effect. Pro-environmental consumers are more responsive to environmental information and green identity labeling and thus are willing to pay a higher premium for rPET bottles. However, in terms of choosing large bottles as a means to reduce plastic use in product packaging, consumers were found to be indifferent about plastic bottle sizes even after receiving environmental information. It is suggested that the inconvenience of carrying or storing large bottles might have offset their perceived environmental benefits.     

IMPACTS OF TECHNICAL ENVIRONMENT ON THE ADOPTION OF ORGANIC FERTILIZERS AND BIOPESTICIDES AMONG FARMERS: EVIDENCE FROM HEILONGJIANG PROVINCE,CHINA

● Farmer adoption of organic fertilizer and biopesticides was found to be positively correlated. ● The technical environment had a significant positive impact on farmers’ adoption of organic fertilizers and biopesticides. ● Technology training and local accessibility to new agricultural technologies enhanced both the adoption of organic fertilizers and biopesticides. ● Exchanging information about production techniques with others generally increased the likelihood of adopting organic fertilizers by 6%. Excessive application of mineral fertilizers and synthetic pesticides poses a substantial threat to the soil and water environment and food security. Organic fertilizer and biopesticides have gradually become essential technology for reducing mineral fertilizer and pesticide inputs. In the process, the technical environment is critical for promoting farmer behavior related to the adoption of organic fertilizer and biopesticides. This paper analyzes the influence of the technical environment on farmer behavior related to the adoption of organic fertilizer and biopesticides based on a survey of 1282 farmers in Heilongjiang Province, China, using the bivariate probit model. The results indicate that (1) farmer behavior related to the adoption applying organic fertilizer and biopesticides were positively correlated; (2) the technical environment had a significant positive impact on farmer behavior related to the adoption of organic fertilizer and biopesticides; and (3) the technical environment had a heterogeneous effect across different groups of farmers. This research provides insights useful for promoting organic fertilizer and biopesticides to farmers. It can be helpful to bundle relevant environmental technologies, conduct technology training for farmers and strengthen the construction of rural information networks.     

BUILDING CLIMATE-RESILIENT FOOD SYSTEMS IN EAST AND SOUTHEAST ASIA: VULNERABILITIES,RESPONSES AND FINANCING

● Food systems in East and Southeast Asia are vulnerable to global warming. ● Regional governments strive for adaption, mitigation and financing for climate resilience. ● Vulnerabilities of food system actors and activities exacerbate the challenges faced. ● Agriculture-specific goals, climate-smart agriculture and market integration are key to building climate resilience. Food system resilience to climate change is uniquely imperative for bringing Sustainable Development Goals within reach and leaving no one behind. Food systems in East and Southeast Asia are interacting with planetary boundaries and are adversely affected by extreme weather-related events. A practical question for East and Southeast Asian stakeholders is how to foster climate-resilient food systems in the face of lingering food system vulnerabilities and policy gaps. This paper reviews food system vulnerabilities and policy responses to climate change. In the policy-based review, this paper compares the economy-wide and agriculture-specific targets of low-carbon development across East and Southeast Asia. With China and member states of the Association of Southeast Asia Nations as case studies, multilevel policies in building and financing climate-resilient food systems are further synthesized. The findings confirm significant differences in agriculture-specific emission goals and public financing supports across East and Southeast Asian nations. With an objective to break practical barriers and finance climate-resilient food systems for the future, this paper recommends defining agriculture-specific greenhouse gas emission goals, reorienting the public finance scheme and enhancing mechanisms for the synergy of public and private resources.     

THE ROLE OF LONG-TERM EXPERIMENTS IN VALIDATING TRAIT-BASED APPROACHES TO ACHIEVING MULTIFUNCTIONALITY IN GRASSLANDS

● Data from the Park Grass Experiment shows inherent trade-offs between species richness, biomass production and soil organic carbon. ● Soil organic carbon is positively correlated with biomass production that increases with fertilizer additions. ● Variance in outcomes can be understood in terms of the dominant ecological strategies of the plant communities indicated by functional traits. ● There was an indication that data on traits associated with the spatiotemporal pattern of resource capture could be used to design species mixtures with greater resource use complementarity, increasing species richness without sacrificing productivity. ● Variance in soil organic carbon was positively correlated with pH. Quantifying the relationships between plant functional traits and ecosystem services has been promoted as an approach to achieving multifunctional grassland systems that balance productivity with other regulating, supporting and cultural services. Establishing trade-offs and synergies between traits and services has largely relied on meta-analyses of studies from different systems and environments. This study demonstrated the value of focused studies of long-term experiments in grassland systems that measure traits and services in the same space and time to better understand the ecological constraints underlying these trade-offs and synergies. An analysis is presented that uses data from the Park Grass Experiment at Rothamsted Research on above-ground productivity, species richness and soil organic carbon stocks to quantify the relationships between these three outcomes and the power of variance in plant functional traits in explaining them. There was a trade-off between plots with high productivity, nitrogen inputs and soil organic carbon and plots with high species richness that was explained by a functional gradient of traits that are indicative of contrasting strategies of resource acquisition of resource conservation. Examples were identified of using functional traits to identify opportunities for mitigating these trade-offs and moving toward more multifunctional systems.     

CHALLENGES PROVIDING MULTIPLE ECOSYSTEM BENEFITS FOR SUSTAINABLE MANAGED SYSTEMS

● For 8000 years, agricultural practices have affected atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. ● Paddy rice cultivation has impacted atmospheric CH₄ concentration since 5000 years ago. ● Modern agricultural practices must include carbon storage and reduced emissions. ● Sustainable management in agriculture must be combined with decarbonizing the economy and reducing population growth. Since humans started practicing agriculture at the expense of natural forests, 8000 years ago, they have affected atmospheric CO₂ concentrations. Their impact on atmospheric CH₄ started about 5000 years ago, as result of the cultivation of paddy rice. A challenge of modern agricultural practices is to reverse the impact cropping has had on greenhouse gas emissions and the global climate. There is an increasing demand for agriculture to provide food security as well as a range of other ecosystem services. Depending on ecosystem management, different practices may involve trade-offs and synergies, and these must be considered to work toward desirable management systems. Solution toward food security should not only focus on agricultural management practices, but also on strategies to reduce food waste, more socially-just distribution of resources, changes in lifestyle including decarbonization of the economy, as well as reducing human population growth.     

TRANSFORMATION OF AGRICULTURE ON THE LOESS PLATEAU OF CHINA TOWARD GREEN DEVELOPMENT

● Agriculture on Loess Plateau has transformed from food shortage to green development. ● Terracing and check-dams are the key engineering measures to increase crop yields. ● Agronomic measures and policy support greatly increased crop production. ● Increasing non-agricultural income is a key part of increasing farmers’ income. ● Grain for Green Program had an overwhelming advantage in protecting environment. Loess Plateau of China is a typical dryland agricultural area. Agriculture there has transformed from food shortage toward green development over the past seven decades, and has achieved world-renowned achievements. During 1950–1980, the population increased from 42 to 77 million, increasing grain production to meet food demand of rapid population growth was the greatest challenge. Engineering measures such as terracing and check-dam were the crucial strategies to increase crop production. From 1981 to 2000, most of agronomic measures played a key role in increasing crops yield, and a series of policy support has benefited millions of smallholders. As expected, these measures and policies greatly increased crop production and basically achieved food security; but, low per capita GDP (only about 620 USD in 2000) was still a big challenge. During 2001–2015, the increase in agricultural and non-agricultural income together supported the increase in farmer income to 5781 USD·yr^–1. Intensive agriculture that relies heavily on chemicals increased crop productivity by 56%. Steadfast policy support such as “Grain for Green Program” had an overwhelming advantage in protecting the natural ecological environment. In the new era, the integration of science and technology innovations, policy support and positive societal factors will be the golden key to further improve food production, protect environment, and increase smallholder income.     

TRADE-OFFS IN THE DESIGN OF SUSTAINABLE CROPPING SYSTEMS AT A REGIONAL LEVEL: A CASE STUDY ON THE NORTH CHINA PLAIN

● Impacts of 30 cropping systems practiced on the North China Plain were evaluated. ● Trade-offs were assessed among productive, economic and environmental indicators. ● An evolutionary algorithm was used for multi-objective optimization. ● Conflict exists between productivity and profitability versus lower ground water decline. ● Six strategies were identified to jointly mitigate the trade-offs between objectives. Since the Green Revolution cropping systems have been progressively homogenized and intensified with increasing rates of inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides and water. This has resulted in higher crop productivity but also a high environmental burden due to increased pollution and water depletion. To identify opportunities for increasing the productivity and reducing the environmental impact of cropping systems, it is crucial to assess the associated trade-offs. The paper presents a model-based analysis of how 30 different crop rotations practiced in the North China Plain could be combined at the regional level to overcome trade-offs between indicators of economic, food security, and environmental performance. The model uses evolutionary multi-objective optimization to maximize revenues, livestock products, dietary and vitamin C yield, and to minimize the decline of the groundwater table. The modeling revealed substantial trade-offs between objectives of maximizing productivity and profitability versus minimizing ground water decline, and between production of livestock products and vitamin C yield. Six strategies each defining a specific combination of cropping systems and contributing to different extents to the various objectives were identified. Implementation of these six strategies could be used to find opportunities to mitigate the trade-offs between objectives. It was concluded that a holistic analysis of the potential of a diversity cropping systems at a regional level is needed to find integrative solutions for challenges due to conflicting objectives for food production, economic viability and environmental protection.     

SUSTAINABLE SUGARCANE CROPPING IN CHINA

● Cost escalation and declining profits evident in sugarcane production in China. ● Monoculture and fertilizer overuse causes poor soil health, crop productivity plateau. ● Matching crop nutrient demand and supply key to recovery of sugarcane soils. ● Inorganic inputs need to be replaced with organic sources to restore soil health and sustainability. ● Integrated multidisciplinary solution for sustainable sugarcane cropping system needed. Demand for sugar is projected to grow in China for the foreseeable future. However, sugarcane production is unlikely to increase due to increasing production cost and decreasing profit margin. The persisting sugarcane yield plateau and the current cropping system with fertilizer overuse, soil acidification and pests and diseases remain the major productivity constraints. Sugarcane agriculture supports the livelihood of about 28 million farmers in South China; hence, sustaining it is a socioeconomic imperative. More compellingly, to meet the ever-increasing Chinese market demand, annual sugar production must be increased from the current 10 Mt to 16 Mt by 2030 of which 80% to 90% comes from sugarcane. Therefore, increasing sugar yield and crop productivity in an environmentally sustainable way must be a priority. This review examines the current Chinese sugarcane production system and discuss options for its transition to a green, sustainable cropping system, which is vital for the long-term viability of the industry. This analysis shows that reducing chemical inputs, preventing soil degradation, improving soil health, managing water deficit, provision of clean planting material, and consolidation of small farm holdings are critical requirements to transform the current farming practices into an economically and environmentally sustainable sugarcane cropping system.     

RESEARCH PROGRESS ON THE IMPACT OF NITROGEN DEPOSITION ON GLOBAL GRASSLANDS

● Grasslands in many regions of the world have been impacted by atmospheric nitrogen deposition. ● Nitrogen deposition commonly leads to reductions in species richness. ● Increases in biomass production is a common response to increased N deposition. ● In some parts of the world there has been limited research into the impacts of nitrogen deposition. Grasslands are globally-important ecosystems providing critical ecosystem services. The species composition and characteristics of grasslands vary considerably across the planet with a wide variety of different grasslands found. However, in many regions grasslands have been impacted by atmospheric nitrogen deposition originating from anthropogenic activities with effects on productivity, species composition and diversity widely reported. Impacts vary across grassland habitats but many show declines in species richness and increases in biomass production related to soil eutrophication and acidification. At a continental level there is considerable variation in the research effort that has been put into understanding the impacts of nitrogen deposition. In Europe, North America and parts of Asia, although there are unanswered research questions, there is a good understanding of N deposition impacts in most grassland habitats. This is not the case in other regions with large knowledge gaps in some parts of the world. This paper reviews the impacts of N deposition on grasslands around the world, highlighting recent advances and areas where research is still needed.     

APPLICATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF ‘GREEN’ PREVENTIVE AND CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES IN GUIZHOU TEA PLANTATIONS

● Application of plant defense inducers against tea diseases. ● Application of natural enemies against insect pests. ● Application of Trifolium repens against weeds. The application and development of ‘green’ preventive technologies in tea plantations is an important means of ensuring tea quality and ecological safety. Ecological, agronomic and biological controls are the main preventive measures used in Guizhou Province. This paper summarizes the ‘green’ preventive technologies being applied in Guizhou tea plantations, including the use of plant defense inducers to regulate tea plant responses to pathogens, natural enemies to control pest species causing damage to shoots and Trifolium repens to control the main weed species. In addition, it summarizes the integrated ‘green’ preventive technologies being used in Guizhou and provides a foundation for the ecological maintenance of tea plantations.     

HOW MULTISPECIES INTERCROP ADVANTAGE RESPONDS TO WATER STRESS: A YIELD-COMPONENT ECOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK AND ITS EXPERIMENTAL APPLICATION

● A framework for multicrop advantage under varying watering conditions is provided. ● This framework clarifies the relation between multicrop overyielding and land use efficiency. ● A novel experimental setup was used to evaluate these theoretical developments. ● Theory and experiment conveyed precise understanding of overyielding scenarios. Absolute yield and land use efficiency can be higher in multicrops. Though this phenomenon is common, it is not always the case. Also, these two benefits are frequently confused and do not necessarily occur together. Cropping choices become more complex when considering that multicrops are subject to strong spatial and temporal variation in average soil moisture, which will worsen with climate change. Intercropping in agroecosystems is expected to buffer this impact by favoring resistance to reduced humidity, but there are few empirical/experimental studies to validate this claim. It is not clear if relatively higher multicrop yield and land use efficiency will persist in the face of reduced soil moisture, and how the relation between these benefits might change. Here, we present a relatively simple framework for analyzing this situation. We propose a relative multicrop resistance (RMR) index that captures all possible scenarios of absolute and relative multicrop overyield under water stress. We dissect the ecological components of RMR to understand the relation between higher multicrop yield and land use efficiency and the ecological causes of different overyield scenarios. We demonstrate the use of this framework with data from a 128 microplot greenhouse experiment with small annual crops, arranged as seven-species multicrops and their corresponding monocrops, all under two contrasting watering regimes. We applied simple but robust statistical procedures to resulting data (based on bootstrap methods) to compare RMR, and its components, between different plants/plant parts. We also provide simple graphical tools to analyze the data.     

PRODUCTION OF NEW WAP-8294A CYCLODEPSIPEPTIDES BY THE BIOLOGICAL CONTROL AGENT LYSOBACTER ENZYMOGENES OH11

● Lysobacter enzymogenes mutants were generated for WAP-8294A biosynthesis. ● Essential and non-essential accessory genes for WAP-8294A biosynthesis were determined. ● Six new WAP-8294A analogs were identified using UHPLC-HR-MS/MS. ● Three deoxy analogs were detected supporting the function of ORF4 in asparagine hydroxylation. Naturally-occurring environmental microorganisms may provide ‘green’ and effective biocontrol tools for disease management in agricultural crops. Due to the constant threat of resistant pathogens there is a pressing and continual need to search for new biocontrol tools. This study investigated the production of new analogs of WAP-8294A compounds by the biocontrol agent Lysobacter enzymogenes OH11 through biosynthetic engineering. WAP-8294As are a family of natural cyclic lipodepsipeptides with potent activity against Gram-positive bacteria. A series of genetic manipulations was therefore conducted on the accessory genes in the WAP biosynthetic gene cluster. The resulting strains containing a single-point mutation in ORF4, which was predicted to encode a 2-ketoglutarate dependent dioxygenase, produced deoxy-WAP-8294As. This result provides evidence for the function of ORF4 in catalyzing β-hydroxylation of the D-asparagine residue in WAP-8294As. In addition, six new analogs of WAP-8294As were identified by UHPLC-HR-MS/MS. This is the first attempt to produce new WAP-8294As in Lysobacter and shows that the spectrum of the biocontrol compounds may be expanded through the manipulation of biosynthetic genes.     

CONSTRUCTION OF AN INDEX SYSTEM FOR SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT IN SMALLHOLDER FARMING SYSTEMS

● A five-step process for quantifying smallholder farming system sustainability is proposed. ● Definition of system boundary, functional unit, and indicators depends on research issues. ● Weighting, conversion, and aggregation methods tightly relates to the validity of assessment results. Smallholder farming systems are important for global food security, but these faces multiple environmental challenges hindering sustainable development. Although sustainable smallholder agriculture issues have been widely discussed and addressed by scientists globally, harmonized approaches in evaluating sustainability are still lacking. This paper proposes a five-step process for constructing a sustainability assessment method for smallholder farming systems, namely definition of system boundary, indicator selection, indicator weighting, indicator conversion, and indicator aggregation. The paper summarizes the state-of-art progresses in agricultural sustainability assessment at different stages, and systematically discussed the benefits and limitations of weighting and aggregation methods. Overall, this evaluation process should be useful by providing rational and comprehensive results for quantifying the sustainability of smallholder farming systems, and will contribute to practice by providing decision-makers with directions for improving sustainable strategies.     

INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ABOVE AND BELOW GROUND PLANT STRUCTURES: MECHANISMS AND ECOSYSTEM SERVICES

● Aboveground to belowground energy transfer. ● Importance of symplasmic nature of sieve tubes. ● Hydraulic, electrical and chemical energy transfer. ● Decreased soil organic C storage over 8000 years. Interactions between above and below ground parts of plants can be considered under the (overlapping) categories of energy, material and information. Solar energy powers photosynthesis and transpiration by above ground structures, and drives most water uptake through roots and supplies energy as organic matter to below ground parts, including diazotrophic symbionts and mycorrhizas. Material transfer occurs as water and dissolved soil-derived elements transport up the xylem, and a small fraction of water moving up the xylem with dissolved organic carbon and other solutes down the phloem. The cytosolic nature of sieve tubes accounts for at least some of the cycling of K, Mg and P down the phloem. NO₃^– assimilation of above ground parts requires organic N transport down phloem with, in some cases, organic anions related to shoot acid-base regulation. Long-distance information transfer is related development, biotic and abiotic damage, and above and below ground resource excess and limitation. Information transfer can involve hydraulic, electrical and chemical signaling, with their varying speeds of transmission and information content. Interaction of above and below ground plant parts is an important component of the ecosystem service of storing atmospheric CO₂ as organic C in soil, a process that has decreased since the origin of agriculture.