Protein kinase activity closely associated with a reconstituted calcium-activated potassium channel.

Modulation of the activity of potassium and other ion channels is an essential feature of nervous system function. The open probability of a large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel from rat brain, incorporated into planar lipid bilayers, is increased by the addition of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to the cytoplasmic side of the channel. This modulation takes place without the addition of protein kinase, requires Mg2+, and is mimicked by an ATP analog that serves as a substrate for protein kinases but not by a nonhydrolyzable ATP analog. Addition of protein phosphatase 1 reverses the modulation by MgATP. Thus, there may be an endogenous protein kinase activity firmly associated with this K+ channel. Some ion channels may exist in a complex that contains regulatory protein kinases and phosphatases.     

The CRAC channel activator STIM1 binds and inhibits L-type voltage-gated calcium channels

Voltage- and store-operated calcium (Ca(2+)) channels are the major routes of Ca(2+) entry in mammalian cells, but little is known about how cells coordinate the activity of these channels to generate coherent calcium signals. We found that STIM1 (stromal interaction molecule 1), the main activator of store-operated Ca(2+) channels, directly suppresses depolarization-induced opening of the voltage-gated Ca(2+) channel Ca(V)1.2. STIM1 binds to the C terminus of Ca(V)1.2 through its Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) activation domain, acutely inhibits gating, and causes long-term internalization of the channel from the membrane. This establishes a previously unknown function for STIM1 and provides a molecular mechanism to explain the reciprocal regulation of these two channels in cells.     

BKCa-Cav channel complexes mediate rapid and localized Ca2+-activated K+ signaling

Large-conductance calcium- and voltage-activated potassium channels (BKCa) are dually activated by membrane depolarization and elevation of cytosolic calcium ions (Ca2+). Under normal cellular conditions, BKCa channel activation requires Ca2+ concentrations that typically occur in close proximity to Ca2+ sources. We show that BKCa channels affinity-purified from rat brain are assembled into macromolecular complexes with the voltage-gated calcium channels Cav1.2 (L-type), Cav2.1 (P/Q-type), and Cav2.2 (N-type). Heterologously expressed BKCa-Cav complexes reconstitute a functional "Ca2+ nanodomain" where Ca2+ influx through the Cav channel activates BKCa in the physiological voltage range with submillisecond kinetics. Complex formation with distinct Cav channels enables BKCa-mediated membrane hyperpolarization that controls neuronal firing pattern and release of hormones and transmitters in the central nervous system.     

Elementary Ca2+ signals through endothelial TRPV4 channels regulate vascular function

Major features of the transcellular signaling mechanism responsible for endothelium-dependent regulation of vascular smooth muscle tone are unresolved. We identified local calcium (Ca(2+)) signals ("sparklets") in the vascular endothelium of resistance arteries that represent Ca(2+) influx through single TRPV4 cation channels. Gating of individual TRPV4 channels within a four-channel cluster was cooperative, with activation of as few as three channels per cell causing maximal dilation through activation of endothelial cell intermediate (IK)- and small (SK)-conductance, Ca(2+)-sensitive potassium (K(+)) channels. Endothelial-dependent muscarinic receptor signaling also acted largely through TRPV4 sparklet-mediated stimulation of IK and SK channels to promote vasodilation. These results support the concept that Ca(2+) influx through single TRPV4 channels is leveraged by the amplifier effect of cooperative channel gating and the high Ca(2+) sensitivity of IK and SK channels to cause vasodilation.     

Structure and function of voltage-sensitive ion channels

Voltage-sensitive ion channels mediate action potentials in electrically excitable cells and play important roles in signal transduction in other cell types. In the past several years, their protein components have been identified, isolated, and restored to functional form in the purified state. Na+ and Ca2+ channels consist of a principal transmembrane subunit, which forms the ion-conducting pore and is expressed with a variable number of associated subunits in different cell types. The principal subunits of voltage-sensitive Na+, Ca2+, and K+ channels are homologous members of a gene family. Models relating the primary structures of these principal subunits to their functional properties have been proposed, and experimental results have begun to define a functional map of these proteins. Coordinated application of biochemical, biophysical, and molecular genetic methods should lead to a clear understanding of the molecular basis of electrical excitability.     

Abnormal coronary function in mice deficient in alpha1H T-type Ca2+ channels

Calcium ion (Ca2+) influx through voltage-gated Ca2+ channels is important for the regulation of vascular tone. Activation of L-type Ca2+ channels initiates muscle contraction; however, the role of T-type Ca2+ channels (T-channels) is not clear. We show that mice deficient in the alpha1H T-type Ca2+ channel (alpha(1)3.2-null) have constitutively constricted coronary arterioles and focal myocardial fibrosis. Coronary arteries isolated from alpha(1)3.2-null arteries showed normal contractile responses, but reduced relaxation in response to acetylcholine and nitroprusside. Furthermore, acute blockade of T-channels with Ni2+ prevented relaxation of wild-type coronary arteries. Thus, Ca2+ influx through alpha1H T-type Ca2+ channels is essential for normal relaxation of coronary arteries.     

alpha-Klotho as a regulator of calcium homeostasis

alpha-klotho was identified as a gene associated with premature aging-like phenotypes characterized by short lifespan. In mice, we found the molecular association of alpha-Klotho (alpha-Kl) and Na+,K+-adenosine triphosphatase (Na+,K+-ATPase) and provide evidence for an increase of abundance of Na+,K+-ATPase at the plasma membrane. Low concentrations of extracellular free calcium ([Ca2+]e) rapidly induce regulated parathyroid hormone (PTH) secretion in an alpha-Kl- and Na+,K+-ATPase-dependent manner. The increased Na+ gradient created by Na+,K+-ATPase activity might drive the transepithelial transport of Ca2+ in cooperation with ion channels and transporters in the choroid plexus and the kidney. Our findings reveal fundamental roles of alpha-Kl in the regulation of calcium metabolism.     

K~+,Ca~(2+)和Mg~(2+)对不同水稻(Oryza sativa L.)基因型苗期耐盐性的影响

【目的】进一步探明盐胁迫条件下营养元素K+、Ca2+和Mg2+对苗期不同水稻基因型耐盐性的影响差异,为明确作物耐盐胁迫的生理机制、提高作物耐盐胁迫能力提供参考。【方法】于2009年1—4月在严格控制水、温、光和营养元素供应的国际水稻研究所人工气候室进行水培试验,比较研究营养液中K+、Ca2+和Mg2+浓度的变化对不同水稻基因型苗期耐盐性的影响。【结果】在盐胁迫条件下(100mmol·L-1NaCl),耐盐基因型(FL478和IR651)与盐敏感基因型(IR29和Azucena)相比,植株体内有较低的Na+含量和Na+/K+、Na+/Ca2+、Na+/Mg2+比,有较高的K+含量,这些都是耐盐基因型耐盐胁迫能力高于盐敏感基因型的内在原因。盐胁迫条件下提高营养液中Ca2+和Mg2+的含量(60mg·L-1),可显著降低植株体Na+含量和Na+/K+、Na+/Ca2+、Na+/Mg2+比,明显减轻盐胁迫的危害,增强水稻耐盐胁迫能力,且Ca2+处理的效果优于Mg2+处理;而提高营养液K+含量对以上指标的影响远远小于Ca2+处理和Mg2+处理,这也是K+处理对水稻耐盐性影响相对不明显的内在原因。【结论】K+、Ca2+和Mg2+在植株体内的含量及其与Na+的比值变化都会影响水稻苗期耐盐性;适当提高水稻生长环境的Ca2+和Mg2+浓度可以明显增强植株耐盐胁迫能力,营养元素Ca2+的效果比Mg2+明显;而K+对水稻耐盐性的影响相对不明显。     

Subcellular calcium transients visualized by confocal microscopy in a voltage-clamped vertebrate neuron

Confocal laser-scanned microscopy and long-wavelength calcium (Ca2+) indicators were combined to monitor both sustained and rapidly dissipating Ca2+ gradients in voltage-clamped sympathetic neurons isolated from the bullfrog. After a brief activation of voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels, Ca2+ spreads inwardly, and reaches the center of these spherical cells in about 300 milliseconds. Although the Ca2+ redistribution in the bulk of the cytosol could be accounted for with a radial diffusion model, local nonlinearities, suggesting either nonuniform Ca2+ entry or spatial buffering, could be seen. After electrical stimulation, Ca2+ signals in the nucleus were consistently larger and decayed more slowly than those in the cytosol. A similar behavior was observed when release of intracellular Ca2+ was induced by caffeine, suggesting that in both cases large responses originate from Ca2+ release sites near or within the nucleus. These results are consistent with an amplification mechanism involving Ca2(+)-induced Ca2+ release, which could be relevant to activity-dependent, Ca2(+)-regulated nuclear events.     

NMDA receptor-mediated K+ efflux and neuronal apoptosis

Neuronal death induced by activating N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors has been linked to Ca2+ and Na+ influx through associated channels. Whole-cell recording from cultured mouse cortical neurons revealed a NMDA-evoked outward current, INMDA-K, carried by K+ efflux at membrane potentials positive to -86 millivolts. Cortical neurons exposed to NMDA in medium containing reduced Na+ and Ca2+ (as found in ischemic brain tissue) lost substantial intracellular K+ and underwent apoptosis. Both K+ loss and apoptosis were attenuated by increasing extracellular K+, even when voltage-gated Ca2+ channels were blocked. Thus NMDA receptor-mediated K+ efflux may contribute to neuronal apoptosis after brain ischemia.     

Ca2+ entry through plasma membrane IP3 receptors

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP3Rs) release calcium ions, Ca2+, from intracellular stores, but their roles in mediating Ca2+ entry are unclear. IP3 stimulated opening of very few (1.9 +/- 0.2 per cell) Ca2+-permeable channels in whole-cell patch-clamp recording of DT40 chicken or mouse B cells. Activation of the B cell receptor (BCR) in perforated-patch recordings evoked the same response. IP3 failed to stimulate intracellular or plasma membrane (PM) channels in cells lacking IP3R. Expression of IP3R restored both responses. Mutations within the pore affected the conductances of IP3-activated PM and intracellular channels similarly. An impermeant pore mutant abolished BCR-evoked Ca2+ signals, and PM IP3Rs were undetectable. After introduction of an alpha-bungarotoxin binding site near the pore, PM IP3Rs were modulated by extracellular alpha-bungarotoxin. IP(3)Rs are unusual among endoplasmic reticulum proteins in being also functionally expressed at the PM, where very few IP3Rs contribute substantially to the Ca2+ entry evoked by the BCR.     

Voltage-dependent calcium channels in glial cells

The electrophysiological properties of glial cells were examined in primary culture in the presence of tetraethylammonium and Ba2+, a treatment that reduces K+ permeability of the membrane and enhances currents through voltage-dependent Ca2+ channels. Under these conditions, glial cells showed both spontaneous action potentials and action potentials evoked by the injections of current. These responses appear to represent entry of Ba2+ through Ca2+ channels because they were resistant to tetrodotoxin but were blocked by Mn2+ or Cd2+.     

Voltage-dependent calcium channels in plant vacuoles

Free calcium (Ca(2+)) in the cytoplasm of plant cells is important for the regulation of many cellular processes and the transduction of stimuli. Control of cytoplasmic Ca(2+) involves the activity of pumps, carriers, and possibly ion channels. The patch-clamp technique was used to study Ca(2+) channels in the vacuole of sugar beet cells. Vacuolar currents showed inward rectification at negative potentials, with a single-channel conductance of 40 picosiemens and an open probability dependent on potential. Channels were inhibited by verapamil and lanthanum. These channels could participate in the regulation of cytoplasmic Ca(2+) by sequestering Ca(2+) inside the vacuole.     

Glutamate receptor-like genes form Ca2+ channels in pollen tubes and are regulated by pistil D-serine

Elevations in cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](cyt)) constitute a fundamental signal transduction mechanism in eukaryotic cells, but the molecular identity of Ca(2+) channels initiating this signal in plants is still under debate. Here, we show by pharmacology and loss-of-function mutants that in tobacco and Arabidopsis, glutamate receptor-like channels (GLRs) facilitate Ca(2+) influx across the plasma membrane, modulate apical [Ca(2+)](cyt) gradient, and consequently affect pollen tube growth and morphogenesis. Additionally, wild-type pollen tubes grown in pistils of knock-out mutants for serine-racemase (SR1) displayed growth defects consistent with a decrease in GLR activity. Our findings reveal a novel plant signaling mechanism between male gametophyte and pistil tissue similar to amino acid-mediated communication commonly observed in animal nervous systems.     

Ion selectivity in a semisynthetic K+ channel locked in the conductive conformation

Potassium channels are K+-selective protein pores in cell membrane. The selectivity filter is the functional unit that allows K+ channels to distinguish potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) ions. The filter's structure depends on whether K+ or Na+ ions are bound inside it. We synthesized a K+ channel containing the d-enantiomer of alanine in place of a conserved glycine and found by x-ray crystallography that its filter maintains the K+ (conductive) structure in the presence of Na+ and very low concentrations of K+. This channel conducts Na+ in the absence of K+ but not in the presence of K+. These findings demonstrate that the ability of the channel to adapt its structure differently to K+ and Na+ is a fundamental aspect of ion selectivity, as is the ability of multiple K+ ions to compete effectively with Na+ for the conductive filter.     

RIM-binding protein, a central part of the active zone, is essential for neurotransmitter release

The molecular machinery mediating the fusion of synaptic vesicles (SVs) at presynaptic active zone (AZ) membranes has been studied in detail, and several essential components have been identified. AZ-associated protein scaffolds are viewed as only modulatory for transmission. We discovered that Drosophila Rab3-interacting molecule (RIM)-binding protein (DRBP) is essential not only for the integrity of the AZ scaffold but also for exocytotic neurotransmitter release. Two-color stimulated emission depletion microscopy showed that DRBP surrounds the central Ca(2+) channel field. In drbp mutants, Ca(2+) channel clustering and Ca(2+) influx were impaired, and synaptic release probability was drastically reduced. Our data identify RBP family proteins as prime effectors of the AZ scaffold that are essential for the coupling of SVs, Ca(2+) channels, and the SV fusion machinery.     

Calmodulin plays a pivotal role in cellular regulation

The role of calcium ions (Ca2+) in cell function is beginning to be unraveled at the molecular level as a result of recent research on calcium-binding proteins and particularly on calmodulin. These proteins interact reversibly with Ca2+ to form a protein . Ca2+ complex, whose activity is regulated by the cellular flux of Ca2+. Many of the effects of Ca2+ appear to be exerted through calmodulin-regulated enzymes.     

胞外ATP、H2O2、Ca2+与NO调控木榄根系离子平衡机理研究

运用非损伤微测技术(NMT),研究了短期盐胁迫下胞外ATP(eATP)、H2 O2 、Ca2 + 与NO 对非泌盐红树木榄根 系K+/Na+ 平衡的调控作用。NaCl(100 mmol/L,24 h)与等渗甘露醇处理的实验表明,木榄根尖对盐胁迫的响应具 有高度的离子特异性。盐胁迫增强了木榄根尖的Na+ 外流,但Na+ 外流被Na+ /H+ 逆向转运蛋白抑制剂Amiloride 和质膜H+ -ATPase 抑制剂Vanadate 抑制,表明Na+ 外流源于根尖表皮细胞质膜Na+ /H+ 逆向转运系统驱动的Na+ 外排。短期盐胁迫处理能诱导木榄根尖K+ 外流,但被氯化四乙胺(TEA,外向K+ 通道抑制剂)明显抑制,证明K+ 外流是由激活的去极化外向型离子通道KORCs 介导。胞外ATP(300 mol/L)、H2 O2 (10 mmol/L)、Ca2 + (10 mmol/ L)与SNP(NO 供体,100 mol/L)均能增加短期盐胁迫下的Na+ 外流,同时抑制K+ 外流。其中,促进Na+ 外流效果 较强的是H2 O2 和Ca2 + ,而Ca2 + 和NO 抑制K+ 外流的效果突出。这些实验结果表明,胞外ATP、H2 O2 、Ca2 + 与NO 这4 种盐胁迫信使是通过上调木榄根系细胞质膜Na+ /H+ 逆向转运体系(Na+ /H+ 逆向转运体和H+ 泵)活性,在促 进Na+ 和H+ 逆向跨膜转运的同时,抑制去极化激活的K+ 离子通道来减少盐诱导的K+ 外流。      

钙离子在植物生理调节中的作用

钙是植物必须的营养元素,同时也是植物体内转导多种生理过程的胞内胞外信号物质之一。胞外Ca2+通过Ca2+通道内流进入胞质,并通过Ca2+-ATPase和Ca2+/H+反向转运蛋白外流,以保持胞质内低Ca2+浓度。同时为了应对植物发育和环境胁迫信号,Ca2+由质膜、液泡膜和内质网膜的Ca2+通道内流进入胞质,导致胞质Ca2+浓度迅速增加,产生钙瞬变和钙振荡,传递到钙信号靶蛋白(如钙调素、钙依赖型蛋白激酶及钙调磷酸酶B类蛋白,引起特异的生理生化反应),这一系列钙信号调节、应答机制构成了植物的钙信号系统。对钙转运系统、钙信号调节和放大及应答方式进行了综述。