Introduction: The MIRAB model in the twenty‐first century

Abstract: The papers collected in this volume were originally presented at a conference in February 2004, on the theme ‘Beyond MIRAB: The Political Economy of Small Islands in the Twenty‐First Century’. Several of the papers in the collection point towards the emergence of a new three‐way taxonomy of small‐island socioeconomic formations, comprising MIRAB, PROFIT and SITE ideal‐types. The key economic flows in the first are remittances and aid; in the second, jurisdictionally‐related flows such as tax‐haven and money‐laundering transactions; and in the third, tourism revenues. All three ideal‐types correspond to potentially sustainable temporary equilibria, but in all cases the existing set‐up is path‐dependent, and subject to regime switch if disturbed. Conceptualisation of the small‐island world as a field of multiple equilibria and path dependence points to the future importance of event studies by island researchers. The collection includes also new research on the theory of remittances, and case studies of the MIRAB process and the transnational migrant diaspora.     

Pacific flows: The fluidity of remittances in the Cook Islands

Abstract: This paper contributes political and cultural‐economy perspectives to the critique of the MIRAB model 20 years on. In it, we celebrate the politically grounded reading by MIRAB analysts of development in the small island nations of the Pacific and their attention to both the empirical and the structural in their treatment of the economies of these countries. We address aspects, however, of one of the common critiques of MIRAB analyses: their failure to capture accurately the nature of small island socio‐cultural economies. We focus on the workings of remittance systems on two of the Cook Islands, Mauke and Manihiki, as the basis for a more thorough critique. We argue that rather than living economically and nationally determined lives, Cook Islanders live in rich networks of flows of goods, people, labour and meaning that the MIRAB model does not fully capture. The microeconomics of the transnational kin or household unit and the remittance decision are deeply embedded in such networks. These networks generate their own, temporary constellations of responsibility, economy and decision‐making, which may or may not materialise at any point as household economy. We consider some of the consequences of a network view for MIRAB analyses and for development in small island nations.     

Breaking out of the MIRAB mould: historical evidence from Norfolk Island

The MIRAB model offers an explanation of the evolution and operation of some tiny Pacific island economies. Proponents of the model have argued that it describes an economic system that is durable and persistent. Using an historical approach, this paper explores whether and how an economy of the MIRAB type can break out of its structural mould without regressing to an earlier stage of development. After establishing that Norfolk Island possessed strong MIRAB characteristics from the end of World War II until the early 1960s, the paper analyses the tourism-dominated economic growth that erased these characteristics, or at least reduced them to insignificance. It concludes that the island has achieved a sustained break-out from the MIRAB mould, although not without incurring some social costs.     

Changes in the economic fortunes of Pacific Islanders in the USA in the 1990s

Abstract: This paper shows that an important requirement of the MIRAB model, economic success in the host country, is a characteristic of Pacific Islander migrants to the USA and their offspring. Pacific Islanders improved their economic lot in the 1980s and again in the 1990s. Part of this improvement was due to increases in their human capital: Pacific Islanders acquired more education, work experience and better English language skills. This upgrading allowed more workers to acquire white‐collar jobs and to increase their earnings.     

The Market for Corporate Responsibility Reporting in the Americas

The largest corporations in the world are increasingly adopting international corporate responsibility (CR) reporting standards from organizations such as the Global Reporting Initiative to meet stakeholder expectations for reliable and comparable social and environmental performance data. At the same time, significant geographic variations in reporting rates remain. The goal of this paper is to explain the diffusion of international CR reporting standards within the Americas. Reporting rates cannot be explained fully by a country's population size or level of economic development. Based on a unique statistical analysis of the relative impact of institutional environments, corporate resources and strategic orientation, stakeholder pressures, and transnational trade and learning networks, this research concludes that the diffusion of CR reporting throughout the Americas to date has been fueled by a rather narrow set of corporations with the capacities necessary to implement CR reporting and the strategic orientation to benefit from it. Moreover, corporations' internal capacities and the external demands for CR reporting have been enhanced in select countries by national and transnational CR advocacy and training organizations. This has led to an uneven development of CR reporting thus far, and this unevenness is expected to continue even as overall reporting rates increase.     

Hurricanes and socio‐economic development on Niue Island

This case study investigates the complex ways that recurrent ecological damage affected the course of socio‐economic development on Niue Island, a Pacific micro‐state. In tracing the historical record of droughts and hurricanes from 1900 to 1990, it is clear that severely inclement weather repeatedly destroyed agricultural development endeavours on the island leading to stagnation in this economic sector. In the aftermath of such disasters there were additional widespread social, political, and economic responses resulting in insidious but inexorable change. These responses – metaphoric ‘winds of change’– constituted, bolstered and sustained the transition to a MIRAB economy.     

‘Water war’ in the Mekong Basin?

The Mekong River system provides a crucial source of natural resources for riparian nations. However, the increasingly rapid pace of hydro‐development in the Mekong Basin is threatening the integrity of the river system, posing a real concern for Lower Basin states, which are particularly dependent on the basin. This scenario has led to warnings of armed conflict, or even ‘water war’, between riparian states. Certainly, the expanding scale of hydro‐development can be expected to continue increasing interstate tensions in the Mekong region; but are these tensions really likely to escalate to armed conflict? This paper explores this question by drawing on the water and conflict theory of Aaron Wolf. Ultimately, this paper concludes that interstate tensions over Mekong hydro‐development are unlikely to generate armed conflict. This is in part due to the strategic impracticality of such a conflict as well as the presence of a river basin management institution. Most compellingly, though, armed conflict is unlikely because the economic imperative shared by Mekong states is better served by cooperation – or at least non‐interference – than conflict, over regional hydro‐development. In closing, the paper urges that the study of water and conflict in the Mekong Basin be refocused at the intrastate level.     

Towards post‐neoliberalism? The comparative politico‐economic transition of New Zealand and Chile

Abstract: This paper compares the evolution of the dominant politico‐economic paradigm over the past 80 years in two ‘resource periphery’ nation states that have become ‘models’ of economic reform, New Zealand and Chile. Analysing the forces that have driven change, it traces the shared transition from a neoclassical model, through structuralist/Keynesian principles, and on to neoliberalism. The paper discusses whether the contemporary convergence around neostructural policy represents a paradigm shift or an adaptation of the neoliberal model designed to sustain free‐market principles in a form that is acceptable to electorates. The paper concludes that the broad commonalities in the transitions are remarkable and come about as a result of shared external shocks as well as similar historical insertions into the global political economy. Notwithstanding the parallels, the comparative approach reminds us of the contingent unfolding of economic paradigms across space, a point that counters arguments that assert that neoliberalism, and the globalisation to which it gives rise, create a homogenous global political economy. This comparative study is timely, as the two countries have recently signed a bilateral strategic trade partnership. This agreement indicates continued pursuit of neoliberal agendas in both countries rather than, as respective governments have heralded it, a move to foster South–South cooperation.     

An Empirical Study on the Relationship between Diversification and Economic Performance of Listed Corporations of China

It is crucial for corporations to select a proper development mode in competitive market. Diversification has been one of the most popular development modes that corporations all over the world pursued since 1960's. The relationship between diversification and economic performance is also an important subject for the research in strategic management. This paper re-examines the economic performance of China listed corporations and designs the measure index system of diversification strategy and economic performance. Moreover, it adopts empirical study on the relationship between them through the approaches such as regression model, variance analysis. It attempts to seek for the diversification development mode fit for China corporations so as to enhance economic performance.     

SITEs revisited: Socioeconomic and demographic contours of small island tourist economies

This study attempts to do three things: (i) provide a review of recent advances in the small island economy literature using the tourism penetration index, (ii) update the impact of tourism across the same global sample of 36 small islands (less than 1 million in population and 5000 km² in area) introduced in APV 47 (1) 2006, and (iii) employing an abbreviated version of the destination life cycle as a development paradigm, construct three different socioeconomic and demographic profiles based on low, intermediate and high tourism impact. Results using cross‐sectional data of 27 indicators reveal three statistically distinct profiles that demonstrate three stages of economic development. Specifically, the findings contrast the low‐income, labour‐exporting, least tourism‐penetrated MIRAB‐type (Migrant/Remittances and Aid/Bureaucracy) emerging islands with their more advanced intermediate impact neighbours. In turn, the latter fall at a significant distance from the most successful s mall i sland t ourist e conomy (SITE) destinations. Thus, this study further refines the characteristics of SITE islands and confirms the viability of tourism in general and the destination life cycle in particular as an effective engine and model, respectively, of island development.     

Effects of World Demand and Competitiveness on Exports and Economic Growth

ABSTRACT There is little consensus in the development literature on whether it is supply explanations such as competitiveness levels, or, the external demand structure which drive the link between exports and economic growth. This paper attempts to reconcile the polarization of the aforementioned viewpoints by examining the effects of both world demand and a country's competitiveness in exports on the relationship between export growth and economic growth. The results indicate that only developing countries which are highly competitive and which also face relatively favorable external demand for their exports experience above-average growth. Weak external demand reduces the positive effects of exports on growth substantially but may be offset by high levels of competitiveness in trade. The results imply that both regional and Third World growth studies on the link between exports and economic growth would profit more from integrating both supply as well as external demand explanations rather than succumb to one of the two viewpoints.     

Spatial–temporal evolution of the port–hinterland relationship: A case study of the Midstream Yangtze River,China

Most scientific attention on port studies centers on deep sea ports, especially container ports. In this paper, in contrast, attention is focused on the spatial–temporal development of inland waterway ports on the Midstream Yangtze River from 2001 to 2013. The aim of this study is to assess two relevant and complementary questions of the hinterland evolution: its geographical extent and the coordination relationship with the inland port. To conduct the study, it was necessary to first identify the boundaries of the ports' hinterlands within the given timeframe. Then, the coupling coordination degree model was introduced to explore the underlying relationship between the port service and hinterland economy. Furthermore, to better depict the intricate economic characteristics of the hinterland, the development stage theory was applied in the models. The results highlight the emergence of a discontinuous hinterland at Wuhan Port and its reinforcement of primacy with respect to fierce hinterland rivalry. It also demonstrates that an interplay between major ports and their corresponding hinterlands evolves from the transitional stage, characterized by lagging port service, to the multi‐stage, wherein the supply of ports partly outstrips hinterland demand.     

甘蔗杂交品种初级核心种质取样策略

以国家甘蔗种质资源圃中1 202份甘蔗杂交品种为材料,根据23个数量和质量性状,从分组原则、组内取样比例、组内取样方法3个层次探讨构建甘蔗杂交品种初级核心种质的最佳取样策略,共形成26种取样策略;同时设10个总体取样量梯度,确定最佳的总体取样量。分组原则以原产地、种植区域、总体聚类进行分组及不分组的大随机;组内取样比例按组内个体数量的简单比例(P)、平方根比例(S)、对数比例(L)和多样性比例(G)确定;组内取样方法采用聚类(C)和随机(R) 2种方法;10个总体取样量梯度为5%、10%、15%、20%、25%、30%、35%、40%、45%和50%。应用变异系数、遗传多样性指数、表型保留比例、表型频率方差、表型方差等5个参数来检验各取样策略的优劣。结果表明,聚类取样优于随机取样;总体聚类分组优于其他分组;在聚类取样中,平方根比例最好,在随机取样中,多样性比例最好;根据取样策略及总体取样量的分析结果最终确认按10%总体取样量,以总体聚类分组、按对数比例在组内聚类取样为构建甘蔗杂交品种初级核心种质的最佳策略组合,其遗传多样性明显高于总资源库。在此初级核心种质的基础上,加入极值材料和取样极易丢失表型性状的材料共计136份组成最终初级核心种质,占总资源的11.31%。     

In the gateway's shadow: Interactions between Singapore's Hinterlands

During the 1990s, Singapore, the Malaysian state of Johor and the Riau Islands in Indonesia marketed themselves as a single investment destination. Due to its capital, technology, and superior logistics, Singapore was the “gateway”; Johor and the Riau Islands were the hinterland—supplying land, labour, and resources. Since then, production networks between the three territories have deepened. Interactions with Singapore have also catalysed connections between Johor and the Riau Islands. To date, research has focussed on the city‐state as the gateway and/or linkages between it and one of the two hinterlands. This emphasis is inherent in the “Gateway City” framework, which focusses on the primary city at the expense of its hinterlands and also overlooks mediating influences such as borders and border regimes. This article proposes complementing the Gateway City with the Cross‐Border Region framework to gain stronger purchase on the unit of analysis and focusing on inter‐hinterland dynamics to gain a more complete picture of how gateway cities affect their surrounding areas. Through applying this expanded theoretical framework to study the interactions of Johor and the Riau Islands, this article seeks to shed light on an under‐theorised and under‐studied aspect of gateway cities.     

甘蔗杂交品种初级核心种质取样策略

以国家甘蔗种质资源圃中1 202份甘蔗杂交品种为材料,根据23个数量和质量性状,从分组原则、组内取样比例、组内取样方法3个层次探讨构建甘蔗杂交品种初级核心种质的最佳取样策略,共形成26种取样策略;同时设10个总体取样量梯度,确定最佳的总体取样量。分组原则以原产地、种植区域、总体聚类进行分组及不分组的大随机;组内取样比例按组内个体数量的简单比例(P)、平方根比例(S)、对数比例(L)和多样性比例(G)确定;组内取样方法采用聚类(C)和随机(R) 2种方法;10个总体取样量梯度为5%、10%、15%、20%、25%、30%、35%、40%、45%和50%。应用变异系数、遗传多样性指数、表型保留比例、表型频率方差、表型方差等5个参数来检验各取样策略的优劣。结果表明,聚类取样优于随机取样;总体聚类分组优于其他分组;在聚类取样中,平方根比例最好,在随机取样中,多样性比例最好;根据取样策略及总体取样量的分析结果最终确认按10%总体取样量,以总体聚类分组、按对数比例在组内聚类取样为构建甘蔗杂交品种初级核心种质的最佳策略组合,其遗传多样性明显高于总资源库。在此初级核心种质的基础上,加入极值材料和取样极易丢失表型性状的材料共计136份组成最终初级核心种质,占总资源的11.31%。     

Strategies of Foreign Market Entry on the Basis of Strategic Alliance

By analyzing the achievements the TTX company and QI company gained on the basis of strategic alliance, this paper proves that strategic alliance is an effective mode of foreign market entry by Chinese enterprises, especially, private, small and medium enterprises, and they can actually promote their competence and acquire profit upon restricted resources by making an alliance with partners. This paper also discusses the problems exist in the alliance and the threat TTX faces, and put forward effective countermeasures.     

US economic assistance to two Micronesian nations: Aid impact,dependency and migration

Abstract: The USA provides economic assistance to the Federated States of Micronesia and the Republic of the Marshall Islands under the Compacts of Free Association. Both economies demonstrate three of the four MIRAB components: migration, aid and bureaucracy. Only the remittance structure has not developed. Significant US assistance supported large government sectors in both nations. Reductions in US assistance of over a 17‐year period led many island citizens to migrate to the USA. However, to date, remittances have not been substantial. In addition to structural challenges, both nations face institutional constraints including poor governance and lack of accountability over assistance. To improve future growth through more effective use of US assistance, these institutional constraints must be overcome. Future US assistance to both nations will fall over the next 20 years, putting pressure on the island governments and will likely contract their economies. The need for remittance streams is likely to increase. New Compact assistance structures strive to improve aid accountability.     

Surfers of the ocean waves: Change management,intersectoral migration and the economic development of small island states

This paper argues that there is a need to better acknowledge and problematise the manner in which individuals, households, organisations and governments in small island jurisdictions develop mechanisms that allow them to exploit the benefits, and/or minimise the losses, of episodic economic lurches. A ‘strategic flexibility’ approach is proposed to explain how actors practise intersectoral migration: cleverly shifting focus, interest and scope, not just out of necessity (reactively) but in ‘smelling’ promising opportunities (proactively). In a scenario where change is taken as a given, managing and coping with such change become the hallmarks of economic survival: just like surfers handling the ocean swell.     

Construction of Silk Road Economic Belt and Industrial Selection of Minority Areas in Northwest China

Construction of Silk Road Economic Belt is a giant engine for the economic upgrading of China.Minority areas in Northwest China since then has become a forward position for the opening to the west,which is extremely significant for expanding the hinterland of Chinese economic development,activating economic development in inland and border areas,promoting the open economic development in central and west China,and also forming a new growth pole of Chinese economy.Optimization of industrial selection can promote economic development,constant economic growth of the northwest minority areas and the construction of Silk Road Economic Belt requires the optimization and adjustment of industrial selection,cultivation of competitive industries with market prospects,and formation of new economic growth points.Minority areas in northwest China have a vast territory and abundant resources that are all powerful support for the development of local competitive industries.