基于Moran’s I的安徽省太湖县耕地质量时空格局分析

[目的] 探究耕地质量时空格局演变规律,为各级土地管理部门进行耕地分区利用与保护提供决策依据,为提升耕地质量和优化土地空间布局提供参考。[方法] 基于安徽省太湖县2008年及2018年耕地质量等级评价成果,以ArcGIS和GeoDa为平台,利用时间序列法和空间自相关分析等研究方法,分别从全局自相关和局部自相关两方面分析太湖县10 a跨度的耕地质量时空格局变异情况,划分制定4类分区管理方案：限制建设区、综合改良区、适度改良区和重点整治区,并有针对地提出符合实际情况的耕地管护措施。[结果] ①2008—2018年,太湖县总耕地面积增加6 474.45 hm²;②2008年及2018年全局自相关Moran’s I分别为：0.419 478,0.288 328,Z得分分别为：8.677 693,5.527 830;③在空间分布上太湖县耕地质量空间正相关类型多以“组团”聚类形式出现,负相关类型无明显集中区域。[结论] 太湖县10 a时间跨度上耕地面积增加了6 474.45 hm²,耕地资源的10 a平均变化率P=1.65%,耕地质量平均等级提升1.68等;在空间分布上呈显著空间自相关特征和空间聚集特征。     

基于“质量-产出-效率”的辽宁省耕地利用分区

耕地利用分区是引导区域耕地未来发展方向的重要依据,保证区片空间的连通是增强耕地利用分区管理可实施性的关键。以辽宁省为研究区,采用两维图论聚类和GIS空间分析相结合的方法,基于耕地利用"质量-产出-效率"的分区指标进行耕地利用综合分区,并探究各分区耕地利用方向。结果表明:1)研究区各县(市)耕地自然质量、产出水平和利用效率之间存在一定空间差异,高值区主要分布于辽宁中部和北部地区,低值区主要分布在辽宁东部和南部,西部地区耕地利用状况参差不齐;2)将辽宁省划分为辽西粮食生产及生态保护区、辽中耕地综合开发先导区、辽东水田及特色农业种植区、辽南耕地效率及产能挖掘区和辽中南耕地利用转型升级区5个耕地利用区;3)两维图论聚类和GIS空间分析相结合的分区方法有效保证了耕地利用分区相邻单元空间上的连通性和行政区界的完整性,对于耕地利用分区具有较好的适用性。研究结果有利于耕地利用分区的统一管理和实施,对综合引导区域耕地利用方向具有一定参考作用。     

多尺度行政区平衡视角下耕地空间布局优化

优化耕地空间布局对提升耕地生产能力、促进农业可持续发展具有重要意义。该研究以广东封开县为例,基于“现状耕地调出-可恢复地类调入”的微观调整逻辑,综合运用空间叠加、综合评价及蚁群优化算法,构建了耕地空间布局调整模型,以调入调出数量平衡为约束条件实现了不同行政区尺度下的耕地布局优化。结果表明：1）研究区共调出耕地1 689.89 hm²,占耕地总面积的7.62%,整体上呈现出“全局零散、局部聚集”的分布特征。2）研究区可恢复地类农业生产适宜性均值为67.04,具有开展作物种植的良好禀赋条件。3）不同行政区尺度平衡情景下,调入结果在研究区北部空间差异显著,与镇内平衡情景相比,县内平衡情景下,调入耕地的农业生产适宜性均值提高了2.08,综合生态系统服务均值下降了0.67。4）两种情景下,耕地的连片性、质量及稳定性均得到提升,因不受调入规模和行政单元空间范围限制,县内平衡情景下的提升效果更加明显,适当扩大可恢复地类筛选范围有利于提升整体耕地质量并降低重要生态用地筛选概率。该研究构建的耕地空间布局调整模型具有良好的适用性,可为制定农用地布局优化与整治提升方案提供参考依据。     

基于局部空间自相关的思茅区耕地利用保护综合分区

对耕地质量在空间上分布的规律研究,是进行耕地质量保护与制定合适土地政策的基础。使用Moran指数的局部空间自相关为研究方法,以思茅区为例,对思茅区内所有耕地图斑进行聚类分析,并依据分析结果对耕地进行利用保护分区。结果表明:(1)思茅区内耕地质量在空间上呈现较强的聚类,耕地质量高分聚集的优质耕地主要分布在城区与六顺镇的周围,低分聚集的劣质耕地主要分布在思茅区的西北部高山峡谷地区。只有少量区域的耕地质量存在负相关或不显著相关,分散分布于思茅区内;(2)根据耕地自然等指数与利用等指数的局部空间自相关的聚类差异,将耕地分为优先保护集约利用区、重点保护高效利用区、提质改良潜力利用区与综合改良低效利用区4个区域,并对分区提出相应的耕地利用保护策略。该研究结果客观反映了思茅区耕地的自然与利用状况,为研究区内优化产业布局与基本农田保护区的划定提供参考。     

基于功能分区与多聚类算法集成的耕地细碎化评价及整治

基于图斑尺度的耕地细碎化评价及整治有利于耕地布局优化,促进农业规模化与集约化发展。该研究以耕地图斑为基本评价单元,引入聚合分析来量化图斑间空间位置关系,围绕耕地细碎化内涵选取评价指标;运用热点分析和二步聚类算法来对研究区功能分区,在功能分区基础上,基于带轮廓系数的k-means聚类算法,评价耕地图斑的细碎化程度。结果表明：1）根据功能分区的聚类结果,新北区被划分为不显著区、连片规整区、离散复杂区;2）评价结果将新北区耕地图斑分为3类：类别一,离散破碎类,包含图斑17 332块,平均图斑面积过小,连片度低,图斑面积集中在0～10 000 m2,面积占比21.98%,连片度集中在1～4,主要分布在新北区中心区域;类别二,形状复杂类,包含图斑4 535 块,图斑形状复杂不规整,面积占比9.65%,形状指数集中在1.5～2.5,均匀分布在全区;类别三,连片规整类,包含图斑4 091 块,图斑集中连片、形态规整,面积占比68.37%,连片度集中在5～10,形状指数集中在1～1.5,主要分布在外围区域;并基于各类别耕地细碎化属性差异,提出相应的优化模式和整治意见。研究结果可以为耕地细碎化整治提供一定参考。     

宁夏沿黄生态经济带耕地的时空演变及驱动力

[目的] 研究耕地空间分布格局与演变的驱动机制,为严守耕地保护红线及宁夏沿黄生态经济带制定耕地资源保护政策与措施,优化耕地保护格局提供参考。[方法] 利用土地变更调查数据和社会经济数据,采用核密度、空间自相关、土地利用动态度、转移矩阵、二元Logistic回归模型等方法,分析2010—2018年宁夏沿黄生态经济带耕地的空间分布、时空演变及其驱动机制。[结果] ①研究区耕地的空间分布呈现出明显的差异性,整体以中、低密度区分布为主,且由低、高密度区向中密度区演变;②耕地空间分布呈正相性,高—高聚类区域主要集中在银川平原,低—低聚类区域分布在灵武市东部、沙坡头区中西部等生态相对脆弱区;③研究区耕地的双向流转是以未利用地—耕地—建设用地为主的生态转换系统,耕地数量稳中有增;④耕地动态度变化有明显的空间聚类现象,且与距离城市的距离成正比,与城市规模成反比;⑤自然条件因子是耕地增加的主要驱动因素,社会经济因子是耕地减少主要驱动因素。[结论] 宁夏沿黄经济带耕地保护基本实现动态平衡。耕地变化是以一定的自然条件因子为基础,受经济、人口等社会经济因子综合作用下的效益择优过程。     

集成"质量-格局-功能"的中国耕地整治潜力综合分区

面向新时期耕地资源多功能综合保护的新要求,科学评价耕地整治潜力,合理确定整治分区是聚焦"新三农"、服务国土综合整治的有力抓手。该研究围绕耕地自然资源禀赋、空间格局、要素功能等3方面,构建了集成"质量-格局-功能"的耕地整治潜力评价指标体系,在对全国耕地进行整治潜力综合评价的基础上,采用k-means聚类方法划定耕地整治潜力综合分区,得到以下主要研究结果:1)通过构建集成"质量-格局-功能"的耕地整治潜力评价框架,采用"一级区-二级区-三级区"3个层级的潜力分区体系,并结合"聚类区域+农业格局+整治类型"的分区方法开展耕地整治潜力综合分区,对因地制宜布局农业生产格局、差别化开展新时期国土综合整治具有积极作用;2)中国耕地资源整治潜力在质量、格局及功能之间存在显著的空间分异,质量改善潜力区主要分布于长江流域、海河流域和淮河流域等地区;格局优化潜力区主要集中于黄河流域、东南诸河流域、内陆河流域及长江中下游等地区;功能提升潜力区主要分布于长江流域、珠江流域及内陆河流域等地区;3)采用k-means空间聚类分析方法,从整治潜力视角将中国耕地资源划分为7个一级分区、38个二级分区和409个三级类型区。研究结果有利于因地制宜推进以全要素整合为核心的耕地综合整治,提高耕地资源供给服务能力及区域农业资源配置效率。     

基于空间决策的城镇空间与农业生产空间协调布局优化

科学划定城镇空间和农业生产空间的空间开发管制边界,是兼顾城市发展与粮食安全的重要举措.该文以鹰潭市中心城区为例,借助GIS平台进行建设开发适宜性评价和耕地综合质量评价.基于2个评价结果开展城镇空间和农业生产空间协调优化布局研究.通过城市发展方向预测、新增建设用地规模、基本农田保护面积和耕地国家利用等四方面修正,形成城市开发边界和基本农田保护红线初步方案.根据空间矛盾协调原则做出空间决策,优化协调城镇空间和农业生产空间布局.研究结果为:中心城区建设开发适宜性分值由高到低呈现出以中心城区中心为圆心的“圈层”式的空间分布,中心城区耕地综合质量高的耕地主要分布在西部和东部;综合建设用地重心移动分析、凸壳原理分析城市扩张模式、基础设施与产业布局分析得出中心城区北部的夏埠乡、志光镇和鸿塘镇是中心城区未来发展的重点方向;引入耕地国家利用等指标,将基本农田保护红线方案划分为可调区和不可调区,城市开发边界方案与耕地保护红线方案不可调区布局冲突的空间决策为调整城市开发边界,优先保障耕地.城市开发边界方案与耕地保护红线方案可调区布局冲突的空间决策为调整耕地保护红线,优先保障城市发展.     

进出平衡视角下耕地恢复潜力重点区域识别

科学识别耕地恢复潜力重点区域，对落实耕地进出平衡、保障国家粮食安全与优化国土空间格局具有重要意义。该研究以山东省济宁市汶上县为研究区，基于“三调”数据，综合农业生产适宜性、新增耕地恢复潜力、地类集聚连片性与经济发展水平4个维度，构建进出平衡视角下栅格尺度的耕地恢复潜力重点区域识别模型，定量识别耕地恢复潜力重点区域并探究其空间分布格局。结果表明：1）汶上县农业生产适宜性较高，适宜性指数为[0.33,0.79]，呈现自东向西逐级递减的地带性分异规律，地域差异较明显；耕地恢复潜力类型以工程恢复为主，可恢复地类中林地分布广泛，占比72.89%；地类集聚连片程度整体较好，高、中连片性区域占比达71.85%，呈“中部低、四周高”的分布态势；经济发展水平存在空间差异性，分布特征与新增耕地恢复潜力和地类连片性互补。2）结合耕地恢复综合评价，共识别23处耕地恢复潜力重点区域，总面积56.31 km²，分布于县域中部、南部与东西边缘地带，重点区域分布广泛。该模型可用于以平原为主的农业主产区重点区域的识别，可为耕地恢复整治项目筛选、耕地进出平衡方案编制与实施提供科学依据，对促进耕地进出平衡制度的落地、耕地可持续利用与国土空间格局优化有重要意义。     

基于生态敏感性分析的江川区土地利用空间格局优化配置

为优化江川区土地利用空间格局,促进土地可持续发展,该文以云南省玉溪市江川区为研究区,将CLUE-S（conversion of land use and its effects at small region extent）模型和生态敏感性分析应用于江川区土地利用空间格局优化配置。以高度敏感区为CLUE-S模型中区域约束文件,突出研究区生态保护重点区域,并以综合生态敏感性分区为影响研究区土地利用变化的驱动力因子,提出一种将生态敏感性融入土地利用空间格局优化配置的过程和结果中的土地利用情景模拟方法,并借助2006年和2016年土地利用数据对江川区自然发展情景和土地生态优化情景2种模式下2025年的土地利用空间格局进行优化配置,并基于生态敏感性分区对优化配置模拟结果进行对比分析。结果表明：2种情景下2025年江川区土地利用格局既有共同特征也存在差异。在2种情景下均有效的保护了原有林地、耕地、未利用地和建设用地格局,但新增林地、草地等空间分布格局不同。根据2025年2种情景与2016年土地利用现状在不同敏感性区内主要土地利用类型分布情况表明,情景二土地利用空间格局优于自然发展情景和2016年土地利用现状。研究结果认为土地生态优化情景更为合理,该结果可为江川区生态保护和城镇发展提供参考。     

On the Taxonomy of the Members of ‘Saccharum Complex’

The difficulty and problems encountered in the study of cultivated plants, in general and sugarcane, in particular has been indicated. In order to understand these problems, a brief review on the taxonomy of Saccharum and closely related taxa, namely, Erianthus, Sclerostachya, Narenga and Miscanthus (generally known as ‘Saccharum complex’) has been given. A short account on the important morphological features that are specific to sugarcane has also been stated as classification is commonly based on such morphological characters. A note has been added on the chromosome number, origin, and distribution of the species of ‘Saccharum complex’ members. Taxonomic keys have been devised for identification of the genera of Saccharinae and for the species of Saccharum and Erianthus occurring in India. A new combination, Sclerostachya fallax (Balansa) Amalraj et Balasundaram, has also been proposed.     

Phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere and its relation to the depletion of soil organic phosphorus

Summary The distribution of phosphatase activity and of phosphate fractions of the soil in the proximity of roots was studied in order to evaluate the significance of phosphatases in P nutrition of various plants (Brassica oleracea, Allium cepa, Triticum aestivum, Trifolium alexandrinum). A considerable increase in both acid and alkaline phosphatase activity in all the four soil-root interfaces was observed. Maximum distances from the root surface at which activity increases were observed ranged from 2.0 mm to 3.1 mm for acid phosphatase and from 1.2 mm to 1.6 mm for alkaline phosphatase. The increase in phosphatase activity depended upon plant age, plant species and soil type. A significant correlation was noticed between the depletion of organic P and phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere soil of wheat (r = 0.99^**) and clover (r = 0.97^**). The maximum organic P depletion was 65% in clover and 86% in wheat, which was observed within a distance from the root of 0.8 mm in clover and 1.5 mm in wheat. Both the phosphatases in combination appear to be responsible for the depletion of organic P.     

Influence of irrigation on the distribution and control of the nematode Meloidogyne javanica by the biocontrol bacterium Pasteuria penetrans in the field

Pasteuria penetrans, a bacterial parasite of plant-parasitic nematodes, is used to control root-knot nematode Meloidogyne spp. populations in vegetable crops. But its efficiency is variable, mostly because of the patchy distribution of the bacteria in arable fields. As the infective P. penetrans are non-motile bacteria in soil, abiotic soil factors can affect the bacteria–nematode relationships. An epidemiological study, conducted in a vegetable field, showed that abiotic factors such as irrigation, soil water holding capacity and texture, affected the efficiency of P. penetrans. A correspondence analysis between these abiotic factors and the density of P. penetrans spores in the soil, and the proportion of Meloidogyne javanica juveniles infected by the bacteria, revealed that irrigation affected directly the distribution of the spores in soil pores related to their passive transport by water flow. Laboratory experiments conducted on the passive transport of spores confirmed that intensive irrigation leached the spores down the soil profile and decreased the percentage of infected Meloidogyne juveniles.     

About the origin of the French grey shallot

The results of the isozyme analysis suggest a closer genetical connection of the French grey shallot to Allium oschaninii and A. vavilovii than to A. cepa.Abbreviations GPI glucose-6-phosphate isomerase - IDH isocitrate dehydrogenase - PDG phosphogluconate dehydrogenase - PGM phosphoglucomutase - TPI triosephosphate isomerase     

Factors related to the distribution and prevalence of the fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in Rana cascadae and other amphibians in the Klamath Mountains

The fungal pathogen Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which causes the disease chytridiomycosis, has been associated with declines and extinctions of montane amphibians worldwide. To gain insight into factors affecting its distribution and prevalence we focus on the amphibian community of the Klamath Mountains in northwest California. The Cascades frog (Rana cascadae), one of the most common amphibians in these mountains, experienced increased mortality as a result of Bd exposure in laboratory trials and has experienced recent, dramatic declines in other parts of California. We surveyed 112 sites in the Klamaths, all of which supported R. cascadae between 1999 and 2002, for amphibians and Bd to (1) determine the distribution of Bd, (2) evaluate changes in the distribution of R. cascadae, and (3) assess associations between potential biotic and abiotic drivers and Bd infection. Bd was widely distributed in the Klamath Mountains – we detected the pathogen at 64% of sites. R. cascadae was found at 79% of sites, and was often infected with Bd. These results suggest that Bd has not caused dramatic declines in R. cascadae in the Klamaths in recent years. Subadult R. cascadae had a higher Bd prevalence than other R. cascadae life stages (subadults: 36%, adults: 25%, metamorphs: 4%, larvae: 1%), and while the probability of infection decreased over the season for adults, it did not for subadults, suggesting that subadults may be more vulnerable to chytridiomycosis than other R. cascadae life stages. Bd prevalence in R. cascadae was highest early in the season at high-elevation sites, which may indicate that populations inhabiting high elevation sites may have a greater risk of being affected by chytridiomycosis. Three other common amphibian species also tested positive for Bd: Pacific chorus frog (Pseudacris regilla), western toad (Anaxyrus boreas), and rough-skinned newt (Taricha granulosa).     

Effect of passage through the intestinal tract of detritivore earthworms (Lumbricus spp.) on the number of selected Gram-negative and total bacteria

Laboratory experiments were carried out to investigate the fate of bacteria during and after passage through the intestinal tract of detritivore earthworms. Earthworms (Lumbricus spp.) were fed with cattle dung inoculated 7 days previously with one of five different Gram-negative bacteria. Bacterial concentrations were determined 2 days later in dung and soil, and in gut material from different parts of the earthworm intestinal tract. A high percentage (28–82%) of the total bacteria (epifluorescence direct counts) in the earthworm gut content was culturable. The concentration of total heterotrophic aerobic bacteria did not vary significantly among the five different bacterial additions and the non-inoculated control. In earthworm casts the number of total heterotrophs per gram dry matter (2.1×10⁹) was higher than in soil (1.7×10⁸), but lower than in the dung (1.5×10¹⁰). The test-bacteria, however, showed different survival patterns along the earthworm intestinal tract. The concentrations of Escherichia coli BJ 18 and Pseudomonas putida MM 1 and MM 11 in earthworm casts were lower than in the ingested dung, while concentrations of Enterobacter cloacae A 107 and Aeromonas hydrophila DMU 115 in dung and casts were similar. Ent. cloacae, and to aminor extent E. coli, were reduced in numbers by several orders of magnitude in the pharynx and/or crop. In the hind gut, however, the concentration of Ent. cloacae had increased to the same level as in the ingested dung, while the concentration of E. coli remained low. Our observations indicate that the bacterial flora of ingested food materials changes qualitatively and quantitatively during gut transit.     

Characterization of the missing diploid progenitors of the common oat

Summary The genomic formula ACD of the hexaploid oat,Avena saliva, AC for the tetraploid speciesA. magna andA. murphyi, and the hypothesis that the A genome was contributed byA. strigosa group and C genome byA. ventricosa—A. eriantha group, have derived from karyotype studies. Cytogenetic evidence, however, does not support any of the known diploid oats as possible progenitors of the hexaploid oats.A. magna, and to a lesser extent,A. murphyi, are closer to the hexaploids than other tetraploids. Morphologically, these tetraploids resemble thesterilis type, which is apparently the genuine form of the hexaploid oats, with a few important differences. Spikelet morphology of these three wild oats indicates some features that must also occur in one or more of their diploid progenitors: 1. Ventricose diaspore containing the entire spikelet, 2. Long and broad callus with blunt tip, 3. Awn insertion at the lower one quarter of the lemma, 4. Close proximity of lemma tips of the two lower florets.A. magna andA. murphyi have narrow ecological ranges and are restricted to heavy alluvial soils which are now mostly under cultivation. It is likely that on similar soil type the diploid progenitors would grow as well and a search for them should be attempted there. Morocco is the most promising area for finding the missing diploids. Not onlyA. magna andA. murphyi grow there, but except one, all other annual oat species as well.     

Intergeneric relationships in the Australian Vitaceae: new evidence from cpDNA analysis

Taxa related to important agricultural species are likely to contain a considerable amount of potentially valuable genetic diversity. Nevertheless, before breeding programs or gene discovery projects can be initiated it is important to understand the phylogenetic relationships between the species involved. A component of a major gene discovery project in grapes at the Centre for Plant Conservation Genetics (Southern Cross University, Australia) is directed at the discovery of novel genes in native Vitaceae. As a result a study was conducted in order to assess the phylogenetic relationships between V. vinifera and the native members of the three major Australian genera: Cayratia, Cissus and Tetrastigma. CpDNA sequence analysis (from the trnL intron) adequately resolved intergeneric relationship between the majority of the species studied and provided some useful new information on the phylogenetic relationships within the Vitaceae. This preliminary project identified two species, C. hypoglauca and C. sterculiifolia, as being closely related to V. vinifera and worthy of further in-depth investigation.     

Symbiosis with bacteria enhances the use of chitin by the springtail,Folsomia candida (Collembola)

Summary The relationship between Folsomia candida and chitin-degrading microorganisms was studied. On chitin agar, 10¹⁰ bacteria were isolated per g faeces, and 3.8×10¹¹ bacteria per g gut contents, 1/3 of them showing a clear (chitin-free) zone around the colony. The most abundant chitin-degrading bacteria were Xanthomonas maltophilia and Curtobacterium sp. To determine the bacterial contribution in the use of chitin by F. candida, a feeding experiment was carried out. F. candida were fed with chitin, either amended with or without tetracycline as an inhibitor of bacteria. When tetracycline was omitted the biomass of F. candida was increased compared to those fed chitin with tetracycline. However, this result was observed only when the food replacement intervals were long enough to allow bacterial colonization before ingestion of the food. In a food-selection experiment, a preference for chitin colonized with microorganisms as opposed to sterile chitin was found. The results indicate that a mutualistic symbiosis of F. candida with chitinolytic microorganisms is likely to enhance chitin degradation. This relationship is not only intra-intestinal but also involves an extra-intestinal phase.Dedicated to the late Prof. Dr. W. Kühnelt     

Soil suppressiveness and functional diversity of the soil microflora in organic farming systems

Arable fields of 10 organic farms from different locations in The Netherlands were sampled in three subsequent years. The soil samples were analysed for disease suppressiveness against Rhizoctonia solani AG2.2IIIB in sugar beet, Streptomyces scabies in radish and Verticillium longisporum in oilseed rape. In addition, a variety of microbial, chemical and physical soil characteristics were assessed. All data were correlated by multiple regression and multivariate analyses with the objective to find correlations between soil suppressiveness and biotic or abiotic soil characteristics. Significant differences in soil suppressiveness were found between the fields for all three diseases. Multiple regression indicated a significant correlation between suppressiveness against Rhizoctonia and the number of antagonistic Lysobacter spp., as well as with % active fungi and bacterial diversity. Grass-clover stimulated Rhizoctonia suppression as well as the presence of antagonistic Lysobacter spp. (mainly L. antibioticus and L. gummosus) in clay soils. Streptomyces suppression correlated with the number of antagonistic Streptomyces spp., % of active fungi and bacterial population size. The presence of antagonistic Streptomyces spp. correlated with a high fungal/bacterial biomass ratio. Verticillium suppression was only measured in 2004 and 2005, due to the inconsistent suppressiveness along the years. Nevertheless, a significant correlation with pH, potential nitrogen mineralization and bacterial biomass was found. Bacterial and fungal PCR-denaturing gel electrophoresis fingerprinting of bacterial and fungal communities, in general, did not significantly correlate with disease suppression. Highly significant explanatory factors of the composition of the dominating bacterial and fungal populations were % lutum, pH, C/N quotient, biomass and growth rate of bacteria. Additionally, the % of organic matter and years of organic farming were explaining significantly the composition of the bacterial population.Thus, significant correlations between several soil characteristics and suppressiveness of different soil-borne pathogens were found. For two of the three pathogens, suppression correlated with biotic soil characteristics combined with the presence of specific bacterial antagonists. Probably the soil suppressiveness measured in the organic fields is a combined effect of general and specific disease suppression.