分子蒸馏浓缩菜籽油脱臭馏出物中维生素E的研究

菜籽油脱臭馏出物(RODD)中富含天然VE,是浓缩VE的重要原料。RODD直接结晶去除甾醇,并在蒸馏温度473K和压力2.66Pa时分子蒸馏脱除重组分。分子蒸馏馏出液经皂化、盐酸酸化、水洗干燥后作为分子蒸馏浓缩VE原料。当分子蒸馏刮膜转速为150rpm、真空度5.3Pa、蒸馏温度403K、进料速率2.068ml/min时,得到含26.32%VE的产品,VE回收率可达69.23%,轻组分FFA回收率达85%。甲酯化-蒸馏方法在蒸馏温度403K时获得30%纯度的VE。     

菜籽油脱臭馏出物中甾醇分离的甲酯化过程优化研究

运用中心组合设计，以甾醇得率与纯度为考察指标，对菜籽油脱臭馏出物的甲酯化过程工艺进行了优化研究。通过甾醇回收率的响应曲面分析，考察了甲酯化时间、催化剂浓硫酸量与甲醇/物料比及其交互作用的影响，并建立了其数学回归模型，利用Matlab绘制出响应曲面图，揭示了内在关系。结果表明：甲酯化温度60℃，甲醇/物料比100 mL/(100 g)，甲酯化时间1.65 h，催化剂浓硫酸加量4.4%，将甲酯化产物通过结晶与冷冻高速离心，甾醇得到较高纯度与得率，维生素E也得到较好保留。二次重结晶甾醇纯度可以达到95％以上，总得率达到45％以上。     

生物柴油冷滤点与其化学组成的定量关系

生物柴油的低温流动性主要取决于化学组成。为了量化表征生物柴油组成与其冷滤点的关系,采用气相色谱-质谱与冷滤点分析技术和多元线性回归分析方法,分析了生物柴油的脂肪酸甲酯组成和冷滤点,研究了脂肪酸甲酯组成对冷滤点的影响规律。研究表明：生物柴油主要由14～24个偶数碳原子组成的长链脂肪酸甲酯组成,其中饱和脂肪酸甲酯主要为C14:0～C24:0,不饱和脂肪酸甲酯主要为C16:1～C22:1、C18:2～C20:2和C18:3。120种生物柴油油样中,乌桕梓油生物柴油的冷滤点最低,为-14℃,花生油生物柴油的冷滤点最高,为13℃。生物柴油的脂肪酸甲酯的含量与分布不同,冷滤点差异较大。冷滤点随饱和脂肪酸甲酯含量的增加呈线性升高,且碳链长的较短的增加显著;随不饱和脂肪酸甲酯含量的增加而呈线性降低,且不饱和度高的较低的降低略明显。建立了线性相关性非常显著（R=0.971）的基于组成的冷滤点预测模型。研究结果为不同环境下生物柴油的推广应用提供参考。     

菜籽油碱催化法制备生物柴油的工艺参数

以碱催化剂为媒介的转酯化反应制备生物柴油方法因其转化率高而倍受重视。该文以菜籽油为原料,在小型试验装置上,采用均相碱催化法,研究了菜籽油在碱性催化剂NaOH的作用下与甲醇经酯交换反应制备生物柴油的工艺条件。考察了醇油摩尔比（4︰1～8︰1）、催化剂用量（0.5%～2%）、反应温度（30～60℃）和反应时间（30～150 min）等工艺参数对酯交换反应的影响,对生物柴油的组成成分进行了气相色谱/质谱联用(GC-MS)分析。结果表明,在醇油摩尔比6︰1,催化剂用量为油质量的1%,反应温度为50～60℃,反应时间为60 min时,酯交换反应转化率最高可达到96.7%。该生物柴油主要由油酸甲酯、芥子酸甲酯、9,12-十八碳二烯酸甲酯、11-二十碳烯酸甲酯、亚麻酸甲酯等脂肪酸甲酯组成,其中油酸甲酯含量最高,相对质量分数高达50.30%。     

脂肪酸甲酯生物柴油改善低硫柴油的润滑性能

生物柴油可作为改善低硫柴油润滑性能的天然添加剂。该文将豆蔻酸甲酯(C14:0)、棕榈酸甲酯(C16:0)、硬脂酸甲酯(C18:0)、油酸甲酯(C18:1)、亚油酸甲酯(C18:2)、亚麻酸甲酯(C18:3)、蓖麻醇酸甲酯(C18:1 OH)及蓖麻油甲酯和餐饮废油甲酯按照0.5%、1.0%、1.5%和3.0%的体积分数添加到低硫柴油中,在高频往复试验机(high-frequency reciprocating rig,HFRR)上进行润滑性能测试,探究脂肪酸甲酯的碳链长度、不饱和度及含羟基等结构特征对润滑性能的影响。结果表明,长碳链脂肪酸甲酯一般比短链润滑效果好;碳链长度为十八的脂肪酸酯中,不饱和程度即碳碳双键数目越高则润滑性能越好;而在相同碳链长度和不饱和度条件下,含羟基的蓖麻醇酸甲酯的润滑改善效果优于油酸甲酯。由多种脂肪酸酯构成的混合物生物柴油的润滑性能要优于某单一的纯脂肪酸甲酯。在低硫柴油中,当某饱和脂肪酸甲酯的体积分数比例达3.0%时,或不饱和酯的体积分数达到1.5%时,或生物柴油的体积分数达1.0%时,可使低硫柴油的润滑性能指标满足相关标准。研究脂肪酸甲酯的各种结构特征对其润滑性能的影响及作用机制,有助于筛选合适的生物柴油组分及其添加浓度作为低硫柴油的润滑添加剂。     

应用短程蒸馏技术提纯胡椒基丁醚

应用刮膜式短程蒸馏装置对胡椒基丁醚(piperonyl butoxide, PB)的提纯进行了研究。考察了进料速率、进料温度和蒸发温度等因素对胡椒基丁醚分离效果的影响。通过试验,初步得到了工艺参数的范围：进料温度70～92℃,进料速率50～70 mL/h,脱除轻组分杂质阶段蒸发温度I为90～94℃,脱除重组分杂质阶段蒸发温度II为98～107℃,操作压力0.1 Pa,刮膜转子转速130～150 r/min,得到的胡椒基丁醚产品纯度96%以上,分离过程总得率大于70%,并为今后工艺参数优化奠定了基础。     

短程分子蒸馏技术精制巨尾桉叶精油工艺优化

为了优化巨尾桉叶精油精制工艺,采用短程分子蒸馏,对初级桉叶精油中1,8-桉叶素和α-蒎烯进行精制,研究不同温度和压力条件下2种物质分离特性。以巨尾桉叶为试验材料,依次采用超临界CO2萃取和分子蒸馏对其进行桉叶油树脂提取和纯化得到初级桉叶精油,采用二因素五水平的响应面优化试验,将馏出物得率、馏出物中1,8-桉叶油素质量分数及α-蒎烯质量分数、馏余物中1,8-桉叶油素质量分数及α-蒎烯质量分数作为试验指标,对分子蒸馏精制桉叶精油工艺进行优化研究。最优纯化工艺条件:以馏出物为目标产物,蒸馏温度38℃,蒸馏压力41 Pa,馏出物中1,8-桉叶油素和α-蒎烯的质量分数分别约为60.80%和31.58%,馏出物的得率为82.06%。分子蒸馏能够对桉叶精油进行有效的纯化精制,桉叶初级精油经过二级分子蒸馏精制后,1,8-桉叶油素和α-蒎烯的质量分数分别提高了77.62%和56.72%。蒸馏温度和蒸馏压力对1,8-桉叶油素质量分数的影响均较α-蒎烯明显,同时,对于1,8-桉叶油素,蒸馏压力的变化对其质量分数的影响较蒸馏温度明显,相反的,对于α-蒎烯,蒸馏温度对其质量分数影响更为显著(P0.05),该研究结果可为分离提纯2种物质提供技术参考。     

皂脚制备生物柴油的试验研究

在食用油生产过程中均会不同程度地产生皂脚(又称油泥)，为解决皂脚排放造成的环境污染及资源浪费问题，该文以皂脚为原料进行制备生物柴油的试验分析。提出了皂脚经循环气相酯化—水蒸气蒸馏制备生物柴油的方法和工艺流程，探讨解决制备过程中酯化反应的连续带水和反应快速进行的问题，得到优化工艺参数。试验装置主要由气相酯化反应器、甲醇气化器、粗生物柴油精馏器和油水分离器等组成。研究结果表明，酯化反应温度为(100±5)℃，皂脚质量0.5%～0.8%的硫酸或3%～4%的对甲苯磺酸为催化剂，甲醇蒸气通入速度6 L/min，反应时间90～120 min，生物柴油精馏器的液相温度为160～220℃，气相温度为120～190℃，水蒸气温度为(100±5)℃，水蒸气通入量为5 L/min，能使皂脚制备生物柴油的转化率达99%以上，产品品质指标基本达到美国的ASTM生物柴油标准，并与中国的0^#柴油接近。     

分子蒸馏工艺参数对高碳脂肪醇提取物精制效果的研究

采用分子蒸馏技术进行高碳脂肪醇提取物的精制，试验结果表明，蒸馏压力66.7 Pa，蒸馏温度在160～230℃范围内，随着蒸馏温度升高，馏出物中的二十八烷醇和三十烷醇含量逐渐增加，并在190℃时出现峰值，之后下降；蒸馏温度190℃，蒸馏压力在26.7～266.7 Pa范围内，随着压力的下降，馏出物中的二十八烷醇和三十烷醇含量增加，到133.3 Pa处分别达到最大值。蒸馏温度和压力作为分子蒸馏的关键工艺参数对高碳脂肪醇的精制效果具有显著影响。     

棉籽油基生物柴油铜片腐蚀特性

参照国家标准《发动机燃料铜片腐蚀试验方法》（GB/T378-1990）,在温度为25℃和50℃条件下,研究棉籽油基生物柴油铜片腐蚀特性,同时考察了棉籽油甲酯和乙酯理化性质的变化,并与0#柴油作了对比。结果表明：在25和50℃条件下,腐蚀试验历时2个月,棉籽油甲酯、乙酯对铜片具有不同的腐蚀现象,且棉籽油甲酯比乙酯的腐蚀性更大。在温度25℃条件下,棉籽油甲酯的铜片腐蚀率达到0.0926?cm/d,腐蚀后棉籽油甲酯的酸值、过氧化值、运动黏度分别提高10.4、1.44、1.13倍;温度升高到50℃时,棉籽油甲酯的铜片腐蚀率达到0.4115?cm/d,腐蚀后棉籽油甲酯的酸值、过氧化值、运动黏度分别增加12.8、2.16、1.13倍。温度升高,铜片腐蚀加剧,油品性质变化增大,乙酯生物柴油也具有类似的变化趋势,而0#柴油对铜片几乎无腐蚀。铜片的腐蚀是由生物柴油变质导致的。该研究可为棉籽生物柴油的工业化应用提供腐蚀数据。     

Electron donor and pH relationships for biologically enhanced dissolution of chlorinated solvent DNAPL in groundwater

Biologically enhanced dissolution offers a method to speed removal of chlorinated solvent dense non-aqueous-phase liquid (DNAPL) sources such as tetrachloroethene (PCE) and trichoroethene (TCE) from aquifers. Bioremediation is accomplished by adding an electron donor to the source zone where fermentation to intermediates leading to acetic acid and hydrogen results. The hydrogen and possibly acetic acid are used by dehalogenating bacteria to convert PCE and TCE to ethene and hydrochloric acid. Reductive dehalogenation is thus an acid forming process, and sufficient alkalinity must be present to maintain a near neutral pH. The bicarbonate alkalinity required to maintain pH above 6.5 is a function of the electron donor: 800 mg/L of bicarbonate alkalinity is sufficient to achieve about 1.2 mM TCE dechlorination with glucose, 1.7 mM with lactate, and a much higher 3.3 mM with formate. Laboratory studies indicate that in mixed culture, formate can be used as an electron donor for complete conversion to ethene, contrary to pure cultures studies indicating it cannot. Various strategies can be used to add electron donor to an aquifer for DNAPL dehalogenation while minimizing pH problems and excessive electron donor usage, including use of injection-extraction wells, dual recirculation wells, and nested injection-extraction wells.     

Responses of native legume desert trees used for reforestation in the Sonoran Desert to plant growth-promoting microorganisms in screen house

Three slow-growing legume trees used for desert reforestation and urban gardening in the Sonoran Desert of Northwestern Mexico and the Southwestern USA were evaluated whether their growth can be promoted by inoculation with plant growth-promoting bacteria (Azospirillum brasilense and Bacillus pumilus), unidentified arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi (mainly Glomus sp.), and supplementation with common compost under regular screenhouse cultivation common to these trees in nurseries. Mesquite amargo (Prosopis articulata) and yellow palo verde (Parkinsonia microphylla) had different positive responses to several of the parameters tested while blue palo verde (Parkinsonia florida) did not respond. Survival of all tree species was over 80% and survival of mesquite was almost 100% after 10 months of cultivation. Inoculation with growth-promoting microorganisms induced significant effects on the leaf gas exchange of these trees, measured as transpiration and diffusive resistance, when these trees were cultivated without water restrictions.     

Cadmium Effects in Sunflower: Nutritional Imbalances in Plants and Calluses

The effects of cadmium (Cd) exposure on sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) nutrient accumulation remain unclear. However, studies concerning crop improvement for Cd tolerance suggest the use of biotechnology techniques such as tissue culture. It is still unknown whether in vitro cells respond to Cd exposure in a way similar to plants. In this paper, the objectives were (1) to characterize the effects of Cd exposure in macronutrient and micronutrient accumulation in different sunflower organs/tissues and (2) to compare the behavior of two culture systems (plants vs. tissue culture) regarding Cd and nutrient accumulation. To achieve these aims, sunflower plants were grown hydroponically in the presence of Cd (at levels of 0, 5, 50, and 500 μ M). For in vitro cultures, seeds were germinated axenically and leaf explants were then grown on Murashige and Skoog medium (MS). One-month-old calluses were grown on MS medium containing 0, 5, 50, and 500 μ M Cd. After 21 d of exposure to 500 μ M, all plants were dead. The contents of macro- and micronutrients and of Cd were determined by ICPS in 18 d-exposed plants and calluses and in calluses exposed for six months to 50 μ M Cd. At day 18, Cd content increased in leaves, roots, and calluses. Cadmium exposure also decreased the contents of magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), and manganese (Mn) in roots and of Mg, Ca, copper (Cu), Fe, and Mn in shoots. Exposed calluses suffered decreases only in Mg, Ca, and Mn contents. The contents of most of these nutrients in six-month-exposed calluses were similar to those of the control calluses, indicating that these long-term exposed in vitro cells developed mechanisms for regulating the effects of Cd on the accumulation of nutrients.     

Using landscape and depth gradients to decouple the impact of correlated environmental variables on soil microbial community composition

Simultaneously assessing shifts in microbial community composition along landscape and depth gradients allows us to decouple correlations among environmental variables, thus revealing underlying controls on microbial community composition. We examined how soil microbial community composition changed with depth and along a successional gradient of native prairie restoration. We predicted that carbon would be the primary control on both microbial biomass and community composition, and that deeper, low-carbon soils would be more similar to low-carbon agricultural soils than to high carbon remnant prairie soils. Soil microbial community composition was characterized using phospholipid fatty acid (PLFA) analysis, and explicitly linked to environmental data using structural equations modeling (SEM). We found that total microbial biomass declined strongly with depth, and increased with restoration age, and that changes in microbial biomass were largely attributable to changes in soil C and/or N concentrations, together with both direct and indirect impacts of root biomass and magnesium. Community composition also shifted with depth and age: the relative abundance of sulfate-reducing bacteria increased with both depth and restoration age, while gram-negative bacteria declined with depth and age. In contrast to prediction, deeper, low-C soils were more similar to high-C remnant prairie soils than to low-C agricultural soils, suggesting that carbon is not the primary control on soil microbial community composition. Instead, the effects of depth and restoration age on microbial community composition were mediated via changes in available phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and soil water, together with a large undetermined effect of depth. Only by examining soil microbial community composition shifts across sites and down the soil column simultaneously were we able to tease apart the impact of these correlates environmental variables.     

Empirical Orthogonal Function analysis of the palmer drought indices

The aim of the paper is to employ Empirical Orthogonal Function (EOF) analysis to drought indices including Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI), Palmer Hydrological Drought Index (PHDI), Palmer Moisture Anomaly (Z) Index (Z-Index), Weighted Palmer Drought Severity Index (WPDSI), and Water Deficit (P-PET) Index and to compare their resultant spatial patterns across Turkey. In this respect, the PDSI, PHDI, Z, WPDSI, Aridity Index (AI) and P-PET Index values are calculated based on observed monthly temperature and precipitation values of the 96 Turkish meteorological stations for the 1929-2009 period, and gridded available water holding capacities (AWHC) in 1-m soil depth are extracted from the soil data sets of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory Distributed Active Archive Centre (ORNL DAAC). By considering the strong match among the PDSI, PHDI, and WPDSI based on the results of the patterns of the first EOFs (EOF1) with the highest eigenvalue, we suggest that using and applying one of these drought indices could be adequate for a drought analysis in Turkey. On the other hand, it is evident that the significant results from the EOF2, EOF3 and EOF4 loadings of the PHDI and WPDSI indices have a similar pattern across Turkey. Therefore, with respect to the geographical autocorrelation and magnitudes of the loading values, it is explained that the PDSI and WPDSI in particular could have originated from the same physical process, and one may have a preference for the effective usage of a combination of PDSI, PHDI and Z-Index. Consequently, in a multi-purpose medium- and long-term drought management plan for Turkey or in any country having similar climatic and physical geographical conditions, using one of the three drought indices along with the Z-Index could be acceptable for successful applications.     

Turloughs - Ireland’s unique wetland habitat

Turloughs are karst wetland ecosystems that are virtually unique to Ireland. Flooding annually in autumn through springs and fissures in the underlying limestone and draining in the springtime, often through the same fissures or swallow-holes, they have been described as ‘temporal ecotones’. Over 300 have been documented. They are priority habitats in the EU Habitats Directive and support a variety of wet grassland and fen type vegetation. Though the vegetation has been recorded and mapped for over 80 turloughs, records for invertebrates are more sporadic. Characteristic species include some aquatic species-often benefiting from the absence of fish-, and many wetland terrestrial species, including carabid beetles that are rare on a European scale. Due to their shallow nature and the full vegetation cover of the basin, turloughs can host internationally significant numbers of visiting winter wildfowl, particularly whooper swans. The variety of plant and invertebrate communities between turloughs is primarily due to different hydrogeomorphological characteristics, but also depends on the range of grazing practices on turloughs. Since these often vary within a turlough basin, this helps maintain within-turlough biodiversity. The main threat to turloughs in the past was drainage, but pollution by nutrients is also now potentially detrimental. However, a more recent and important threat may be the cessation of farming within turloughs. As potentially threatened wetlands of European importance, turloughs require a full inventory of their biodiversity and the factors affecting it. The collation here of all literature concerning turloughs will provide a basis for an integrated approach to future research on turloughs that is essential for a full understanding of these complex ecosystems.     

New versus old scientific names in strawberries (Fragaria L.)

New Potentilla synonyms of the Fragaria species names are discussed and considered to be dispensable. Further unnecessary nomenclatural changes based on the argument to recognize monophyletic but not paraphyletic taxa should be avoided to maintain nomenclatural stability for global communication about plant genetic resources. The new combination Fragaria×rosea (Mabb.) K. Hammer et Pistrick is presented for the hybrid Potentilla palustris (L.) Scop. ×Fragaria×ananassa Duchesne ex Rozier.     

Competition between inoculated and indigenous Rhizobium/Bradyrhizobium spp. strains for nodulation of grain and fodder legumes in Pakistan

Summary The competitive ability of inoculated and indigenous Rhizobium/Bradyrhizobium spp. to nodulate and fix N₂ in grain legumes (Glycine max, Vigna unguiculata, Phaseolus vulgaris) and fodder legumes (Vicia sativa, Medicago sativa, and Trifolium subterraneum) was studied in pots with two local soils collected from two different fields on the basis of cropping history. The native population was estimated by a most-probable-number plant infectivity test in growth pouches and culture tubes. The indigenous rhizobial/bradyrhizobial population ranged from 3 to 2×10⁴ and 0 to 4.4×10³ cells g^-1 in the two soils (the first with, the second without a history of legume cropping). Inoculated G. max, P. vulgaris, and T. subterraneum plants had significantly more nodules with a greater nodule mass than uninoculated plants, but N₂ fixation was increased only in G. max and P. vulgaris. A significant response to inoculation was observed in the grain legume P. vulgaris in the soil not previously used to grow legumes, even in the presence of higher indigenous population (>10³ cells g^-1 soil of Rhizobium leguminosarum bv phaseoli). No difference in yield was observed with the fodder legumes in response to inoculation, even with the indigenous Rhizobium sp. as low as <14 cells g^-1 soil and although the number and weight of nodules were significantly increased by the inoculation in T. subterraneum. Overall recovery of the inoculated strains was 38–100%, as determined by a fluorescent antibody technique. In general, the inoculation increased N₂ fixation only in 3 out of 12 legume species-soil combinations in the presence of an indigenous population of rhizobial/bradyrhizobial strains.     

Ontogenic variation in nitrogen fixation and accumulation of nitrogen in mungbean,blackgram, cowpea,and groundnut

Ontogenic variations in N₂ fixation and accumulation of N by the mungbean (Vigna radiata L. Wilczek), blackgram (Vigna mungo L. Hepper), cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. Walp.), and groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) were studied by a ¹⁵N-dilution technique. Pots filled with 7 kg of red yellow podzolic soil were used. Samples were taken 20, 40, 60, and 80 days after emergence which approximately corresponded to preflowering, flowering, early/mid-pod filling and late pod filling stages, respectively. During early growth (up to 40 days after emergence), the carryover of seed N accounted for a considerable fraction of the total plant N in the legumes, the highest being in the groundnut. With a correction for carryover, the groundnut derived over 45% of its N content from the atmosphere 20 days after emergence whereas the corresponding figures were 33% for the blackgram and about 28% for the cowpea and mungbean. Between flowering and early pod fill, there was a rapid increase in N₂ fixation in all legumes except in groundnut which showed highest fixation from 60 to 80 days after emergence. In the mungbean, N₂ fixation and uptake of soil N were insignificant 60 days after emergence while in other legumes these processes continued beyond this time. All legumes derived about 90% of their N from atmosphere by 80 days after emergence. However, due to considerable interspecific differences in total N yield the final amount of N₂ fixed showed an appreciable variation among legumes. It was highest in the groundnut (443 mg N plant^-1) followed by the cowpea (385), blackgram (273), and mungbean (145), respectively. The groundnut maintained nodules until the late pod filling stage while in other legumes, nodules senesced progressively following the mid-pod filling stage. During pod filling there was a net mobilization of N from vegetative tissues to developing pods in the mungbean, which amounted to about 20% of N in seeds. This mobilization was not evident in other legumes.     

Use of soil solarization to control root rots in gerberas (Gerbera jamesonii)

Summary An investigation was conducted during the summer months of 1986–1987 and 1987–1988 in Western Australia to evaluate the effect of soil solarization on the control of root rot of gerbera an also on the microbial and nutrient status of the soil. Infested soil cores were sampled from a site where root-rot was a severe problem and were removed to a non-infested site where they were subjected to soil solarization or fumigation. Soil solarization resulted in reduced root rot (root disease index 28.6%) in comparison to the untreated control (52.0%) 8 months after planting. Plants in the fumigated plots had 15.8% less disease than those in solarized plots. Solarization increased the total numbers of bacteria and actinomycetes, and the proportion of bacteria and fungi antogonistic to Fusarium oxysporum, F. solani and Rhizoctonia solani. The proportion of actinomycetes antagonistic to these fungi, however, did not differ between solarized and control soil treatments. There was a significant reduction in disease in plants grown in infested fumigated soil to which a 10% concentration of solarized soil had been added, suggesting the development of microbial suppression in solarized soil. Phytophthora cryptogea was eradicated to 30 cm by solarization as well as by fumigation. Solarization eliminated R. solani but not F. oxysporum to a soil depth of 10 cm. Solarization increased the levels of NO _n3 ^– -N and NH₄ ⁺-N in soil, but did not affect the concentrations of PO₄ ^3–, K⁺, Fe²⁺, organic C and pH. Yield (as number of flowers per plant) was increased by soil solarization and by fumigation.Increased yields and decreased disease severity in the solarized plots could have been caused by (1) a reduction in the infectivity of the infested soils, (2) an increase in the suppressiveness of the soil, and (3) an increased available of plant nutrients.