不同形态无机磷对两种磷效率小麦根际特征的影响

以磷高效型小麦小偃54和磷低效型小麦京411为材料的砂培试验,通过测定植株生物量及吸磷量、根系形态特征、根际pH、磷酸酶活性,研究不同形态无机磷WP(KH2PO4),Al-P(AlPO4)和Fe-P(FePO4)对两种磷效率小麦根际特征的影响.结果表明,在WP处理下,两种磷效率小麦的地上部吸磷量、总吸磷量和磷吸收效率均显著高于其它处理,而其根冠比和磷利用效率却低于其他处理.除了根部吸磷量,小偃54的生物量和吸磷量有高于京411的趋势.除了WP处理,其他处理的小偃54的根冠比和地下吸磷量均高于京411.所有处理的小偃54的根长和根体积均显著高于京411,且不施磷条件(PO)下更为明显,小偃54根系长度是京411的1.6倍;此外,小偃54根系磷酸酶活性均比京411弱.除Al-P外,小偃54的根际酸化能力较京411强.由此可见,磷胁迫条件下,磷高效小麦根系形态特征改变是根际磷活化的主要机理之一,且受磷水平、磷形态及其溶解性的影响.     

两种磷效率小麦在不同土壤上根际特征的差异

以磷高效型小麦小偃54和磷低效型小麦京411为研究对象设计三室根箱试验,通过测定生物量、吸磷量、pH和酸性磷酸酶,对比两种小麦在不同磷水平(P0 mg/kg土、100 mg/kg土)及两种不同土壤上(石灰性黑垆土、酸性红壤)根际特征的差异。试验结果表明,黑垆土上,增施磷肥使小偃54的总生物量增加了14.99%,京411增加了26.53%,总吸磷量二者分别增加了99.29%和83.70%;红壤的速效磷含量高,施肥仅提高了磷低效型小麦京411的生物量。黑垆土上磷胁迫并未造成小偃54与京411各部分生物量和吸磷量的显著性差异,但小偃54的根际pH降低值和酸性磷酸酶的活性却已显著高于京411;P0处理时,红壤上小偃54的地上部和总生物量显著高于京411,虽然红壤的速效磷含量高于黑垆土,但在P0处理时两种小麦在两种土壤上的生物量和吸磷量并无显著性差异。就根际分泌物而言,石灰性黑垆土上,小偃54的根系在低磷胁迫下通过降低pH和分泌酸性磷酸酶来活化土壤中难溶态的磷,而在红壤上小偃54的pH和酸性磷酸酶的活性保持稳定。酸性红壤中两种小麦酸性磷酸酶活性显著高于石灰性黑垆土。由此可见,两种磷效率小麦在两种不同性质土壤上活化机理存在差异。     

液培条件下磷水平对两种磷效率小麦根际特征的影响

为探讨磷高效型小麦(小偃54)和磷低效型小麦(京411)在不同磷水平下根际特征的差异,测定了液培条件下苗期小麦的植株生物量和吸磷量、根际pH值与根系分泌的酸性磷酸酶活性等。结果表明,不同磷水平(P0:0、P1:0.5 mmol/L和P2:1 mmol/L)下,磷高效型小偃54的植株吸磷量和根部生物量从移苗第6 d起明显高于磷低效型京411,在P0水平下尤为明显,且随培养时间的延长两者差距逐渐增大;小偃54的根际pH值在移苗初期与京411并无明显差异,随着培养时间的延长,小偃54的根际pH值显著低于京411,但两者单位根系分泌质子量差异逐渐减小。从移苗第6 d到第18 d,小偃54在不同磷水平下酸性磷酸酶的分泌量均显著高于京411;小偃54在P0水平下根系分泌的酸性磷酸酶量显著高于P1和P2水平,而京411从第12 d起才有相同规律,小偃54比京411对磷胁迫反应快且强度大。由此可见,在不同磷水平下,磷高效型小偃54在苗期的各项测定指标均优于磷低效型京411,在P0水平下两者根际特征差异尤为显著,且两种小麦根际特征差异与苗期生长天数有很大的关系。     

石灰性土壤上两种磷效率小麦根际特征差异

采用三室根箱实验,选用黑垆土和潮土两种石灰性土壤,对两种磷水平的磷低效型小麦京411和磷高效型小麦小偃54,进行植株生物量及吸磷量、根际土壤pH值、磷酸酶含量、水溶性磷含量的测定,旨在研究两种磷效率小麦在不同石灰性土壤上的根际特征差异.结果表明,不施磷条件下,两种土壤上,小偃54的根部生物量分别为0.85和4.62 g,均显著高于京411的0.68和3.65 g;小偃54根际土壤的pH值分别比京411低0.07,0.11个单位;在施磷条件下,小偃54的根际土壤水溶性磷分别低于京411 837,1588 μg/kg,达到显著性差异.根际磷酸酶在不同土壤上存在明显的差异,黑垆土在不施磷条件下小偃54的根际土壤磷酸酶含量显著高于京411,在潮土上呈现相反的趋势.试验结果表明,两种磷效率,小麦根际特征在不同土壤上有一定的相似性,同时存在明显差异.     

不同磷效率基因型小麦应对缺磷胁迫的表型及相关基因表达的研究

  【目的】  小麦是磷肥需求量最大的作物之一。为了探索小麦对磷的高效利用机制,本研究评价了不同磷效率基因型小麦在缺磷条件下的差异响应。  【方法】  本研究选取一个磷高效小麦基因型‘小偃54’和一个低效率型‘中国春’作为试验材料,设置正常供磷(+P)、缺磷(?P)和缺磷7天后恢复正常供磷(RP) 3个处理进行小麦水培试验,调查分析了小麦幼苗的表型、生理以及缺磷响应基因的表达随缺磷时间的变化趋势,及它们在不同磷效率小麦基因型间的异同。  【结果】  缺磷胁迫明显增加了两个小麦基因型的根冠比,但无论缺磷与否,磷高效基因型‘小偃54’的根冠比均大于磷低效基因型‘中国春’。随着缺磷时间的延长,小麦幼苗地上、地下部无机磷和总磷浓度逐渐降低,但不同基因型之间无明显差异。对缺磷的小麦幼苗恢复供磷后,磷耗竭的小麦幼苗体内无机磷含量迅速增加,‘小偃54’地上、地下部的无机磷含量均明显高于‘中国春’。缺磷响应信号基因TaIPS1和TaSPX3在缺磷6 h即被诱导表达,随着缺磷时间的延长表达量逐渐升高,且恢复供磷后表达量显著降低;缺磷早期‘中国春’中TaIPS1和TaSPX3的表达量比小偃54高,但在长期缺磷和缺磷后恢复供磷处理下又比‘小偃54’低,表明磷低效小麦基因型‘中国春’可能对体内磷稳态变化更为敏感。然而,两个根系特异表达的高亲和磷转运子TaPHT1.1/9 和TaPHT1.10均表现出缺磷早期表达受到抑制,而长期缺磷被诱导升高表达。未预料到的是,二者在复磷处理后的表达量明显高于缺磷处理。长期缺磷处理下,‘中国春’中TaPHT1.1/9的表达量明显低于‘小偃54’,但其TaPHT1.10的表达与‘小偃54’无显著差异,表明不同磷效率基因型小麦幼苗缺磷诱导表达的磷吸收转运子可能存在差异。除此以外,缺磷胁迫显著增加了‘中国春’根系DCB-Fe含量,但对‘小偃54’无明显影响。  【结论】  磷高效基因型小麦幼苗(‘小偃54’)比磷低效型(‘中国春’)具有更大的根冠比和更强的磷吸收能力。‘小偃54’根系中的磷转运子基因TaPHT1.1/9的表达也明显高于‘中国春’。然而,缺磷明显促进了磷低效基因型小麦根表铁的富集。今后将进一步研究小麦根表铁的富集对小麦幼苗磷高效吸收和利用的影响。     

氮素形态对不同磷效率基因型小麦生长和氮素吸收及基因型差异的影响

对2种不同磷效率基因型小麦幼苗水培结果表明,NO3-N和NH4NO3-N对小麦植株地上部生长的影响无明显差异,但是对根系生长的影响明显不同。NH4-N对小麦幼苗的生长有明显的抑制作用,且对根系生长的抑制程度显著大于对地上部;对磷低效基因型Jing411的抑制程度明显大于对磷高效基因型Xiaoyan54。NH4NO3-N处理有利于提高植株地上部氮含量和植株的氮吸收效率。Xiaoyan54的植株吸氮量在NH4NO3-N处理中最高,Jing411在NO3-N处理中最高。不同处理对营养液pH值的影响明显不同。NH4NO3-N和NH4-N处理导致营养液pH值降低,NO3-N处理使营养液pH值升高,不同磷效率基因型小麦使营养液pH值降低或升高的程度不同。小麦磷效率基因型差异的表现与否和氮素形态有关,以植株地上部干重为磷效率指标的基因型差异在供应NO3-N时不表现。磷高效基因型Xiaoyan54的生长显著优于磷低效基因型Jing411。     

土壤剖面不同土层硝态氮植物利用及运移规律研究

采用外源标记15NO-3--N微注射技术的田间微区试验,研究了我国北方灌溉农作体系中,由于氮肥的高量投入导致作物收获后土壤剖面大量残留NO-3--N对后作的氮素供应潜力及其去向。结果表明,在本试验水氮管理条件下,菠菜（Spinacia oleracea L.）对土壤剖面15、45、75 cm位置标记氮的利用率分别为28.2%、22.3%、16.3%; 冬小麦（Triticum aestivum L.）小偃54对相应位置标记氮的利用率分别为21.8%、17.4%、11.5%,而京411为21.8%、11.6%、7.4%。菠菜对土壤不同层次残留氮的利用率显著大于小麦,小偃54显著高于京411。菠菜的根长密度低于小麦,土壤剖面多数层次两个小麦品种的根长密度差异不显著,小麦的根长密度与相应土层标记硝态氮的利用率呈显著的正相关关系; 根干重在土壤剖面多数层次呈现小偃54＞京411＞菠菜的趋势。生长季结束标记氮发生了向下移动,3个标记处理分别在土壤剖面60—80、60—80、80—100 cm出现积累峰; 但菠菜15 cm位置收获后整个剖面的%Ndff值均很低,标记氮在剖面中几乎没有积累峰; 不同标记位置的残留氮均发生向上运移,上移距离分别为15、45、35 cm,残留氮标记的层次越深,其在土壤中再分布能力愈弱,残留越集中。     

不同磷效率玉米自交系根系形态与根际特征的差异

通过三室根袋栽培试验,对3种磷高效型和3种磷低效型的玉米自交系在2种不同磷水平下的植株生物量、吸磷量、根系形态、根际pH值以及根际磷酸酶进行研究,比较不同磷利用率基因型玉米自交系的根系形态及根际特征的差异。结果表明,在低磷情况下,磷利用率高的玉米自交系其植株生物量中的根干重、植株的吸磷量、根系形态中的根尖数与根长以及根际磷酸酶的活性方面均高于磷利用率低的玉米自交系。植株的根部干重:磷高效的1号品种（hp1）显著高于磷低效的2号品种（lp2）,hp2显著高于lp1、lp2、lp3;hp1、hp2的地上部与根系的吸磷量均显著高于lp2、lp3。hp1、hp2根尖数、根长显著高于磷低效型的lp2、lp3。hp1、hp2、hp3根际土壤的酸性磷酸酶活性显著高于lp2、lp3。其他指标如植株地上部分干重、pH值,磷高效型玉米自交系也存在一定优势。所有品种中hp2与lp3的差异最为显著。     

小麦/玉米苗期磷累积量对介质供磷水平反应的差异

小麦和玉米苗期是磷素营养的关键期和敏感期,研究两种作物苗期对介质供磷反应,可为合理施用磷肥提供参考.试验设缺磷对照、低磷胁迫、中等磷胁迫和正常供磷(P2O5含量分别为0、0.05 mmol·L-1、0.3 mmol·L-1和0.5 mmol·L-1) 4种磷水平,选取小麦"小偃22号"、"兰考4号"和玉米"屯玉65号"、"户单4号"为指标作物,用营养液培养法研究小麦、玉米苗期磷累积量对介质不同供磷水平的反应差异.结果表明,不同介质供磷水平下,两种作物苗期磷累积量显著不同且因作物类型、基因型、器官及测定时期不同而异.总体而言,介质供磷后,苗期早期生长阶段(出苗后25 d以前),小麦的介质最佳供磷水平较玉米高;苗期后期(出苗后40～50 d),小麦和玉米最佳供磷水平一致.如果以低磷胁迫作为对比进行分析,玉米苗期整株磷累积量对介质供磷的敏感性比小麦强;从不同基因型来看:"兰考4号"对介质供磷的敏感性强于"小偃22号","屯玉65号"和"户单4号"基本一致.缺磷条件下小麦较玉米磷效率高,供磷条件下玉米较小麦高;但不同基因型间规律性较差.     

磷和土霉素对小麦和紫花苜蓿幼苗生长和根系发育的影响

采用盆栽试验的方法,研究不同磷添加量(0,20,80 mg/kg)和土霉素添加量(0,40,160 mg/kg)对小麦和紫花苜蓿幼苗生物量及根系发育的影响。结果表明:所有水平土霉素处理中,20,80 mg/kg磷处理的小麦地上部生物量均比不加磷时高,分别高22.7%～34.1%,10.0%～30.0%和9.1%～18.3%。除160 mg/kg土霉素加80 mg/kg磷的处理外,所有处理的苜蓿根生物量均小于不加磷和土霉素的对照。小麦的根长和根表面积随着土霉素添加量的增加总体上呈减少的趋势。总体来看,施磷显著促进了小麦幼苗地上部的生长,但对苜蓿幼苗生长的影响不显著。土霉素对苜蓿幼苗的根系发育有抑制作用。研究结果可为评价土壤中土霉素残留对作物早期生长的影响和指导合理施用磷肥提供理论依据。     

溶磷细菌肥对石灰性土壤磷素转化的影响

通过室内模拟培养和大豆盆栽土培生物模拟试验，研究了磷细菌溶解磷酸钙的能力及在北方石灰性土壤上施用磷细菌肥对土壤磷素转化的影响。试验结果表明：磷细菌菌株具有较强溶解磷酸钙的能力，磷酸钙的溶出率从第1天的2．80％提高到第8天的22．00％。在贫速效磷和富难溶性磷土壤上施用溶磷细菌肥有利于土壤中难溶态的Ca10-P和缓效态Ca8-P含量下降，促使土壤中Ca2-P和Al-P的含量增加，从而使土壤中有效磷含量增加。而对于富速效磷的土壤，无论施菌肥与否对土壤中各种形杰的无机磷绢分基本没有影响．     

磷素活化剂对红壤磷形态及有效性影响的研究

在我国南方红壤中加入不同的磷活化剂进行培养试验,结果显示:磷活化剂提高了土壤有效磷含量,不同活化剂的活化能力不同。相关分析和通径分析结果表明,磷活化剂的活化能力大小顺序为:低分子有机酸钠钙盐>腐植酸>腐植酸钠>脲基甲酸乙酯;磷活化剂可以提高红壤中的Al-P、Ca-P和Fe-P等无机磷含量,其中Al-P和Ca-P与有效磷均达到极显著水平,而Fe-P作用效果不显著,可以通过影响Al-P和Ca-P来间接影响有效磷,磷活化剂会抑制土壤中O-P的生成。     

农作措施对集约化土壤中磷形态变化的影响

Phosphorus (P) in agricultural soils is an important factor for soil quality and environmental protection. Understanding of P and its fractions in soils on a regional scale is imperative for effective management or utilization of P and the improvement of P availability in soils. To study spatial variability and changes of soil P and its fractions as affected by farming practices, soil samples were taken in Rugao County, Jiangsu Province of China, an intensive agricultural area in the Yangtze River Delta region, in years of 1982 (n = 1 514), 1997 (n = 1 651), and 2002 (n = 342). High spatial variabilities of Olsen P and total P (TP) were observed throughout the study area. Loamy Stagnic Anthrosols and clay or loamy Aquic Cambosols had significantly higher concentrations of Olsen P and TP than sandy Ustic Cambosols and Aquic Cambosols. Olsen P and TP were increased from 1982 to 2002. The accumulations of Olsen P and TP in the cultivated soils were likely related to the increased application of P fertilizer, organic input, and soil incorporation of crop residues as well as conversion of soil use. Accumulated soil P was dominantly in labile and semi-labile P fractions. These P fractions may be utilized by future crop production by adjusting management practices, but they also pose a serious threat to nearby water bodies. Future strategies should include decreasing P fertilization in soils and supporting sustainable management. The information from this study can be used to monitor changes in soil fertility and environmental risks so that the use of fertilizers can become more rational.     

Effect of Drying on Phosphorus Distribution in Poultry Manure

Abstract

Laboratory drying may alter manure phosphorus (P) distribution. The effects of freeze, air (22°C), and oven (65°C) drying on sequentially fractioned poultry manure P were examined. Higher drying temperatures resulted in lower percentage of dry matter. Increased H₂O‐ and decreased sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃)‐extractable P with drying provided evidence that drying increases poultry manure P solubility. Labile fractions were predominantly inorganic P (P_i), whereas sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) fractions had significant amounts of organic P (P_o). Drying altered H₂O‐ and NaHCO₃‐extractable P_i but had no consistent effect on P_o in these fractions. This work suggests that variations due to drying should be taken into consideration when evaluating manures for P availability or when comparing data in which different drying methods have been utilized.     

温室土壤磷素迁移变化特征研究

采用野外调查采样和室内分析相结合的方法,研究了典型温室栽培地区山东寿光土壤磷素状况及其迁移变化特征。结果表明：（1）除Ca10-P外,温室土壤耕层（0～20 cm）全磷及无机磷组分含量均显著高于露地土壤,其平均含量分别为露地土壤的2.9、3.7、5.6、4.1、3.4倍和6.1倍,且以耕层累积为主,表现出明显的表聚特征,并有向下迁移的趋势;（2）在温室栽培的前期,磷素累积较快,连续种植了4～8 a时,全磷含量达到一个较高范围,为露地土壤的2～4倍,随着种植年限的继续增加,其再累积磷素的能力较差,甚至略有下降;（3）Ca8-P、Al-P和O-P是温室土壤磷素累积的主要形态,与露地土壤相比,其在0～20 cm耕层的平均增加量分别为296.5、288.5、306.0 mg.kg-1;（4）温室土壤耕层水溶性磷和速效磷的平均含量为10.9 mg.kg-1和248.4 mg.kg-1,分别为露地土壤的8.7倍和5.4倍,磷淋失并造成环境污染的可能性很大。     

Phosphorus bioavailability of sewage sludge‐based recycled fertilizers in an organically managed field experiment

Recycled phosphorus (P) fertilizers from sewage sludge can contribute to the ongoing effort of closing the P cycle. Five recycled P fertilizers (Struvite SSL, Struvite AirPrex®, P‐RoC®, Pyrolysis coal, and Na‐SSA) were tested for their P availability in a two‐year field experiment with maize. The experiment was conducted on an organic certified research station at soil pH 6.5. Other P fertilizer treatments included: phosphate rock (PR), compost, and an unfertilized control. In addition, the rhizobacteria strain Bacillus sp. Proradix (Proradix®) was applied to test its ability to increase P bioavailability. Each year, shoot DM and P offtake of maize was measured and P use efficiency of the tested fertilizers was calculated. No significant differences in shoot DM were found among fertilized treatments and the unfertilized control in both years of experiment. Fertilization with recycled fertilizers increased P offtake by between 0% (Na‐SSA) and 27.5% (Struvite SSL) compared to the unfertilized control. Rhizobacteria application led to an increase in P offtake of maize from 25.9 to 38.7 kg P ha^?1 when combined with PR fertilization in the year of fertilizer application, while no significant effect was found for the recycled fertilizers. Some of the tested recycled fertilizers from urban waste water can be considered as effective fertilizers for their use in organic agriculture.     

The equivalence of the Calcium‐Acetate‐Lactate and Double‐Lactate extraction methods to assess soil phosphorus fertility

A large variety of extraction methods are used worldwide for the estimation of “plant‐available P” in soils. In Germany, the standard extractants are Calcium‐Acetate‐Lactate (CAL) and Double‐Lactate (DL). Until now there is no validated transformation procedure available and studies on the comparability of both methods have reported conflicting evidence. The uncertainty about the equivalence of CAL‐P and DL‐P hinders a direct comparison of the P fertility status and P fertilizer recommendations across Germany. Based on 136 datasets for soil samples from an interlaboratory comparison program and three P fertilization field trial sites, for which plant‐available P had been determined by both the CAL and DL method, we assessed the comparability of both extraction methods and derived simple and multiple regression equations to transform DL‐P into CAL‐P values. On average, DL extracted 30% more P than CAL. However, this strongly depended on soil pH and carbonate content. A simple linear regression model explained 70% of the variance. However, if simple linear regression models were fitted to pH‐specific samples (pH range 4.5 to 7.0) the R² increased to 0.96. Based on an independent validation dataset (n = 48) we demonstrated that such pH‐specific models were more accurate than models that did not consider pH when transforming DL‐P to CAL‐P values. Multiple regression results showed that out of soil pH, C_org, N_t, and C : N ratio, only soil pH improved the model. The transformation equations in this study provide a step towards an improved comparability of P fertility status assessments of soils across Germany.     

Agronomic assessment of phosphorus efficacy for potato (Solanum tuberosum L) under legume intercrops

Abstract

Phosphorus (P) is an essential element and its efficient use is of global importance. This study evaluated the effect of growing potato under legume intercrops on P uptake and use efficiency indices: P harvest index (PHI), P uptake efficiency (PuPE), P partial factor productivity (PPFP) and P partial balance (PPB). The experiment was carried out for four consecutive seasons with treatments comprising potato cultivated under legume intercrops: none (T1), dolichos (Lablab purpureus L) (T2), peas (Pisum sativum L) (T3) and beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L) (T4). Across the seasons, the mean haulm P uptake for T2 (6.7?kg P ha^?1), T4 (5.5) and T3 (4.5) were 6%, 23% and 36% lower than that observed in T1 (7.1?kg P ha^?1), respectively. On the other hand, tuber P uptake was highest in T1 (21.8?kg P ha^?1) and T2 (21.3?kg P ha^?1) and were significantly higher than 13.2?kg P ha^?1 in T3 and 15.1?kg P ha^?1 in T4. This had a profound effect on PuPE, which was equally highest in T1 (0.26?kg total P uptake kg^?1 P supply) and T2 (0.25) and lowest in T3 (0.16) and T4 (0.18). Similarly, PPFP, PHI and PPB followed a similar trend, with highest values in T1 (57?kg tuber dry matter yield kg^?1 P supply, 76.4?kg tuber P uptake kg^?1 total plant’s P uptake and 0.20?kg tuber P uptake kg^?1 P supply, respectively). Among the tested legume intercrops, dolichos competed least for P with the main crop (potato) hence it can be integrated into potato-based cropping systems without compromising potato tuber yield.     

黄土旱塬冬小麦磷素含量累积动态与磷肥利用效率研究

利用旱作长期定位施肥试验,研究施用磷肥对冬小麦植株磷素含量的动态变化以及磷肥利用效率的影响。结果表明,磷肥对冬小麦植株体内含磷量的影响呈V型,冬前期最高,随着作物生长逐渐降低,灌浆期达到最小值,随后又有回升。冬小麦磷素累积主要集中在拔节期—开花期,和灌浆期—成熟期2个阶段进行,保证这2个阶段磷素供应对小麦的良好生长有重要作用。从磷肥利用效率、产量等指标来看,在施用氮肥90 kg/hm2的情况下,磷肥用量应该控制在45～90 kg/hm2的合理范围内。     

Crop use and profile distribution of phosphorus in soils that developed on mafic rocks in southern Portugal

The phytoavailability of soil phosphorus (P) depends on the different forms in which it occurs and how these forms change after the application of P fertiliser to the soil. Forms of P in the A, B and C horizons of eleven pedons that developed on mafic rocks were characterised by a fractionation method before and after fertilisation with single superphosphate, and a micropot experiment was conducted to assess the short-term use of P fertiliser by rye (Secale cereale L.). The main sources of P to the crop were (i) phosphate adsorbed on mineral surfaces and pedogenic Fe, Al or Ca phosphates in the A horizon and (ii) Ca-phosphates in B and C horizons. In the C horizons, poor in Fe/Al phases and clay, the precipitated Ca-P showed low solubility, resulting in a reduction in shoot biomass. The apparent P recovery by rye was similar in the A (36%) and B (29%) but decreased in the C (15%) horizons. The partial factor productivity (g g^?1) decreased from the A (58) to B (11) and C (5) horizons. P phytoavailability decreased with increasing profile depth because the transformation of P fertiliser to poorly soluble Ca-P forms increased with depth.