雨滴粒径的测量方法及其改进研究

18世纪以来 ,人们探索出了许多观测雨滴粒径的方法 ,其中滤纸色斑法操作简便、成本低廉 ,至今仍被广泛应用 ,但传统的数据处理方式不仅工作冗繁 ,而且存在较大误差。实践表明 ,运用AutoCAD软件描绘雨滴色斑图案并计算色斑面积 ,进而运用Excel软件换算出雨滴粒径 ,可大大减少工作量并提高雨滴测量精度。推荐了一种由作者自行设计的雨滴取样器。     

滇中高原不同林龄华山松林冠层对天然降雨雨滴能量特征的影响

[目的] 探究滇中磨盘山不同林龄华山松人工林对天然降雨动力学特征的影响,为区域水土资源保护、森林结构调整等提供一定的理论参考。[方法] 基于2019年5至10月在云南省玉溪市新平县磨盘山观测的74场降雨资料,采用滤纸色斑法对华山松人工林（中龄林15 a,成熟林40 a,过熟林60 a）的林内外的降雨雨滴同时进行观测。选取其中具有代表性的11场降雨,针对不同降雨条件分析了3种林龄林分对雨滴能量特征的影响。[结果] ①华山松林林冠层对雨滴有汇集与分散作用,中龄林对雨滴分散作用更强,成熟林次之,过熟林则表现为较强的汇集作用。②林内外雨滴终点速度与雨滴直径均具极显著的正相关关系（p<0.01）,林内雨滴终点速度排序为：中龄林 > 成熟林 > 过熟林。③雨滴直径及降雨强度的增加均可增强林内外的降雨能量,且雨滴能量与二者均呈现极显著的正相关关系（p<0.01）。不同降雨条件下,降雨动能与雨滴径阶均可拟合为幂函数,林内雨滴能量排序为：中龄林 < 成熟林 < 过熟林。其中,中龄林对雨滴能量的削弱作用更为明显。④中龄林对雨滴的缓冲势能效果最好（66.67%）,占降雨总势能的52%,成熟林次之（31.58%）,过熟林最弱仅为20.64%。[结论] 随树木年龄的增长林冠减缓雨滴能量的效果减弱。因此,对于成熟林以上的华山松人工林林分,应及时进行林分采伐与更新,且注重保护林下枯落物,以减轻由林下雨滴造成的水土流失。     

陕西杨凌天然降雨雨滴特性研究

天然降雨雨滴特性是土壤侵蚀的动力因子之一,是研究降雨侵蚀力规律的基本依据。运用虹吸式雨量计记录杨凌的天然降雨过程,同时采用滤纸色斑法观测天然降雨雨滴的特征,结合图形处理软件Image-J处理雨滴直径。研究结果表明:该区天然降雨雨滴大小分布符合Best函数式;雨滴中数直径、降雨动能与降雨强度呈幂函数关系,但关系式中的系数由于雨型的不同和观测范围的限制而存在一定差异。     

沈阳市天然降雨雨滴特征研究

采用滤纸色斑法对沈阳市天然降雨雨滴进行观测,通过计算并运用回归分析对沈阳地区天然降雨雨滴特性进行研究。结果表明:沈阳地区天然降雨雨滴的大小分布遵守Best函数分布式;雨滴中数直径及降雨动能同降雨强度关系显著,呈幂函数关系。     

小流域径流调控模型降雨特性模拟研究

基于小流域模型降雨试验研究中存在的不足,在模型模拟试验的基础上,将计算机矢量化软件和色斑法相结合,分析了模型人工降雨雨强率定、雨滴取样、雨滴大小组成分布、降雨能量等降雨特性参数,得出不同喷头组合、不同水头压力条件下模型雨强在0.114~1.33 mm/min之间各场降雨雨滴中数直径为1.122 7~2.139 4 mm,模型降雨总动能为188.74~3 980.03 J/mm。     

基于计算机绘图软件的雨滴谱测定新方法

 为寻找天然降雨和人工模拟降雨特征及设计人工降雨装置的新方法,运用计算机绘图软件与传统色斑法相结合,探索出一种新的测量雨滴直径与数据处理方法。该方法弥补了传统色斑法在观测与数据转换方面工作冗繁、精度低的缺陷,使测量下限由1mm下降到0.2mm,测量范围扩大了一个数量级,大大减少了测量工作量,并得出雨滴直径与色斑直径率定关系式。对其普适性与优越性进行了检验,结果表明:在应用新方法对降雨雨谱进行分析时,所得公式最佳。     

沈阳地区天然降雨雨滴特征对坡面产沙量的影响

为了探究沈阳地区天然降雨雨滴特征与产沙量的关系,在天然降雨条件下,使用滤纸色斑法计算雨滴特征,利用野外径流小区（长8 m,宽1 m）采集沙样。运用相关分析法、灰色关联分析法和模糊贴近度分析法分析了降雨强度、雨滴动能、雨滴中值粒径、雨滴终点最大速度和雨滴质量与产沙量的关系。结果表明:经过相关分析和灰色关联分析,影响坡面产沙量的顺序为降雨强度 > 雨滴动能 > 雨滴中值粒径 > 最大雨滴终点速度 > 雨滴质量,模糊贴近度分析表明降雨强度对坡面产沙量的影响最大,降雨动能其次,雨滴质量影响最小。坡面产沙量分别与降雨强度、雨滴中值粒径、雨滴动能呈幂函数关系;天然降雨雨滴中值粒径与降雨强度呈幂函数关系;雨滴中值粒径和雨滴质量是雨滴动能的主要影响因子。     

泾河南小河沟流域自然降雨特性

采用德国HSC-OTT Persivel32激光雨滴谱探测仪监测南小河沟流域自然降雨的雨滴谱,分析不同雨型自然降雨雨滴特征及其分布规律,并分析了降雨特性各要素间的相互关系。结果表明:(1)该区自然降雨雨滴直径集中在0.3~1.5mm,与黄土高原利用传统的滤纸色斑法测定结果基本一致,但略小于东北和闽南地区。当雨强I10mm/h时,雨滴中数直径随雨强的增大而增大;当I≥10mm/h时,雨滴中数直径骤然下降,这在一定程度上和雨强增大后大雨滴破裂有关。该地区雨谱随雨强的变化可用Best分布拟合。(2)普通型降雨雨滴数量随直径的分布曲线较平缓,其动能与雨强呈线性相关;而短阵型降雨的雨滴数量随直径的分布曲线较陡峭,其动能与雨强呈幂函数关系。两种雨型的降雨动能均随雨强的增大而增大,但短阵型降雨动能增大的更快,因此短阵型降雨的侵蚀力更大。     

滇中高原常绿阔叶林对天然降雨雨滴动能的影响

为探究滇中高原优势群落常绿阔叶林植被对降雨雨滴动能的影响,于2016年和2017年5—9月,在天然降雨条件下运用自计雨量计和滤纸色斑法,通过定位监测磨盘山常绿阔叶林林外降雨和林内穿透雨特征及其雨滴特性,针对不同降雨条件研究了常绿阔叶林对雨滴动能等特征的影响。结果表明:林外的雨滴个数比林内降雨的雨滴个数多61.7%;随着雨量的增大,雨滴直径分布规律也呈逐渐增大的趋势;在小雨条件下,0.5mm林外降雨雨滴直径数量占总雨滴数的40.85%,而同径级雨滴林内仅占总数的12.22%,且以0.5~3.5mm的雨滴数量所占比例较大;当林外降雨雨滴直径超过4.5mm,雨滴终点速度稳定在9.34m/s;林内降雨雨滴直径超过4.1mm,雨滴终点速度稳定在7.05m/s;同一雨滴径级下,暴雨条件下的雨滴动能比小雨时的动能大98.29%,且随降雨量的增大而增大,林内累积雨滴动能的峰值达到林外降雨的20.68%。随着雨滴直径的增大,穿透雨势能、降雨总势能及林冠截留势能均呈逐渐增大的趋势,缓冲势能比穿透雨势能大46.59%,占总势能的65.18%。林冠层对小雨具有截持和增大林内降雨雨滴直径的作用,且造成林内降雨的滞后性,林冠对天然降雨的降雨速度、势能及动能起到明显的缓冲作用。     

黄土高原南部人工林林冠对降雨特征的影响分析

林冠降雨特征是森林水文作用的重要机制,同时也是植被在水土保持作用中的重要内容。以黄土高原南部常见乔木刺槐、元宝枫、桉树为研究对象,以滤纸色斑法为基本实验原理,观测了该地区天然降雨15场,分别取得3种乔木冠下雨滴谱200份。通过对比分析林冠内外降雨特征,得到以下结论:林冠降雨特征与林外降雨特征有显著区别;林下雨滴分布呈现近似的正态分布,大雨滴数量较林外明显增多;林冠下雨滴中数直径（D₅₀）受降雨强度的影响很小,且在降雨强度小于0.1 mm/min时,林冠下D₅₀大于林冠外,当雨强大于0.1 mm/min,林外D₅₀有大于林内的趋势;降雨动能与雨滴中数直径有着相似的变化趋势。     

雨滴击溅对耕作层土壤团聚体粒径分布的影响

为研究不同雨滴直径的降雨对耕作层团聚体的破碎及其粒径分布特征的影响,该文选取4个雨滴直径(2.67~3.79 mm)对耕层土壤(0~20 cm)团聚体进行雨滴击溅试验,每次试验各滴5 000滴,每1 000滴收集1次溅蚀团聚体。结果表明:1)所有收集次序中雨滴直径3.79 mm溅蚀量最大,累积雨滴数为2 000、3 000和4 000时,溅蚀量与雨滴直径均呈显著的指数函数关系。2)各雨滴直径的溅蚀量随粒径减小呈增大-减小-增大趋势,2 mm粒径的溅蚀量几乎为0,0.053 mm粒径的溅蚀量随雨滴直径增大而增大。3)相同雨滴直径不同累积雨滴数之间平均重量直径值差异不显著,相同累积雨滴数不同雨滴直径之间平均重量直径值差异不显著(P0.05)。4)不同雨滴直径溅蚀团聚体富集率随粒径变化一致,1 mm粒径溅蚀量团聚体富集率值接近0,0.053~1 mm粒径团聚体富集,1 mm粒径团聚体主要破碎成0.053~1 mm粒径团聚体,且粒级越小,富集率越高。研究可为黄土高原地区水土保持提供理论依据。     

Impact of Soil Water Content and Core Sampler Diameter at Sampling for Dry Soil Fragment‐Size Distributions

Soil conditions at sampling and the dimensions of the sample are critical factors when soil aggregation is indirectly characterized by determining the distribution of soil fragments. Our objective was to determine the effects of gravimetric soil water content and core sampler diameter (16, 54, and 84 mm) at sampling on the dry‐fragment‐size distribution of two soils (Typic Paleudalf and Typic Hapludalf) under undisturbed Festuca arundinacea L. sod and recently rototilled treatments. The 16‐mm core diameter sampler compressed the rototilled soil, and it was not appropriate for soil aggregation studies. The fragmentation of samples taken with core diameters greater than 54 mm decreased with decreasing soil water content. A greater probability of discriminating between undisturbed and fragmented silt loam or clay loam soils was observed when sampling with a 54‐mm‐diameter probe and when the soil had a mean soil water content of 237g kg^?1 or at a potential of ?0.61MPa.     

Image analysis and three-dimensional modelling of pores in soil aggregates

Three cross-sections of soil aggregates (2–5 mm diameter) were digitized at 5 μm resolution from montages (× 100) of scanning electron micrographs to produce binary images representing the soil pores and soil matrix. A three-dimensional random Boolean process was chosen as a model of the soil pores and matrix. The soil matrix was simulated by randomly positioned, overlapping spheres with radii drawn from an exponential distribution. Simulation of a 1 mm cube of one soil aggregate showed that all but 0.1 % of the pore space was connected to the exterior, although only 50% appeared to be connected to the exterior in a cross-sectional image. Pore spaces able to accommodate different sizes of microorganisms were also investigated. For example, a protozoan with a cross-sectional diameter of 20 μm could be accommodated in 17% of the pores in a 1 mm³ soil cube, although only 11 % of the pores would be accessible to those protozoa on the exterior of the cube.     

Estimation of soil splash detachment rates on the forest floor of an unmanaged Japanese cypress plantation based on field measurements of throughfall drop sizes and velocities

To study and model the interrill erosion process in an unmanaged Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) plantation, soil splash detachment rates were estimated based on the quantification of throughfall raindrop indices. Throughfall drops and soil splash detachment were simultaneously observed in the field, and observed data were compared with estimates produced by previous models. Observations took place over five months in 2005, during six observation periods. Raindrop indices of kinetic energy (KE), momentum (M), and momentum multiplied by the drop diameter (MD) were calculated from drop diameters and velocities. The median volume diameter of 1.99 mm for the overall observation period was well bounded by those from other Japanese cypress plantations. Throughfall consisted of large drops, generated as drips, exceeding 3 mm in diameter. The fall height was insufficient for the drops to attain terminal velocity, with 91% of the drops reaching less than 90% terminal velocity. The observed throughfall raindrop indices had strong correlation with throughfall rainfall intensity, even though throughfall raindrops occurred in seven rainfall events with different meteorological conditions. The values of observed KE and M were lower than previous model-derived estimations. Earlier models tended to overestimate throughfall KE and M, partly because the expected velocity was greater than that observed, and partly because they did not consider the effect of the splash water component during throughfall. The splash detachment rate in forests was weakly correlated with the total-amount raindrop indices but strongly correlated with the maximum value of raindrop indices over a short time scale such as 1 h. This result indicates that continuous and concentrated raindrop impacts over a short time duration cause splash detachment in the forest floor. Development of a comprehensive model of the process of forest floor soil surface erosion requires more detailed measurement of actual throughfall drops.     

Splash distance and size distributions for various soils

Splash is an important process in interrill erosion because it produces movement of soil fragments. However, this process is technically difficult to measure and little is known about its size selectivity. In this study, a splash ring device was used to characterise the spatial variation of the quantity and the aggregate size distribution of splashed soil fragments. Soil aggregates were placed at the centre of an experimental device subjected to a 29 mm h⁻¹ simulated rainfall with a kinetic energy of 17 J mm⁻¹. Splashed soil fragments were collected in concentric rings and analysed for masses and fragment size distributions. Four different soils, with various textures, were tested.Soils fragments were splashed across the whole splash device up to 45 cm from the source, and the quantity of splashed fragments decreased exponentially with the distance. For the four tested soils, the splash parameters were significantly correlated to the results of aggregate stability measurements with r=−0.96 and r=0.95, respectively, for the total splashed mass and the mean weight diameter (MWD) of the whole splashed fragments. The measurement of the splashed fragment size distributions showed that fragments up to 2000 μm were transported by raindrop impacts. The mass percentage of the coarsest fractions of splashed soil fragments exponentially decreased with the distance from the source. The extent of this decrease depends on the soil type. The size distributions of splashed soil fragments were compared with those of soil fragments produced by breakdown. Comparison of splash data to aggregate breakdown data showed an enrichment of the 200–1000 μm size fraction in the splashed fragments.     

基于粒子成像瞬态测量技术的雨滴微物理特性及降雨动能研究

雨滴微物理特性及降雨动能是揭示降雨物理本质的重要特征量,亦是开展侵蚀定量分析与建立侵蚀量预报模型的基础。采用粒子成像瞬态测量可视化技术观测自然降雨雨滴,结合计算机视觉识别技术解算雨滴微物理特性参数,同时采用虹吸式自记雨量计记录自然降雨降雨强度。研究表明:该次降雨雨滴以中等粒子为主,雨滴直径均值为1.52 mm,降落末速度均值为3.47 m/s,其中直径在1.00~3.00 mm范围内的雨滴占样本总数的87.21%。雨滴直径和降落末速度呈显著的对数关系。基于实测的雨滴微物理特性和降雨强度估算降雨动能,该结果与传统的经验模型估算结果相对误差均值为7.28%。该方法得到的降雨动能较以往的经验模型能更真实的反应雨滴降落过程中的做功大小,为准确计算降雨过程中雨滴所造成的溅蚀量奠定基础。     

Erosion Potential under Miconia calvescens Stands on the Island of Hawai‘i

This study provides evidence that Miconia calvescens has the potential to accelerate surface erosion in stands where it invades by (i) reducing under‐canopy light levels, thereby reducing the establishment of ground cover vegetation, and (ii) producing highly erosive throughfall drops on large leaves in a single‐layer canopy. The throughfall energy in a stand of invasive miconia on the Island of Hawai‘i (USA), assessed by measuring the drop size and drop velocity distributions with a laser disdrometer, was significantly higher than that in a stand of native ‘ōhi‘a (Metrosideros polymorpha) and ambient rainfall. Median throughfall drop size for miconia (3·83 mm) was twice that of ambient rainfall (1·62 mm). Highly erosive throughfall resulted from large drops forming on large miconia leaves and relatively high fall velocities associated with the single‐story miconia canopy. In contrast, multi‐storied natural ‘ōhi‘a had a larger median drop size; however, a lower fall height reduced throughfall effective kinetic energy. Furthermore, the effective kinetic energy for miconia was high because large drops (> 3·8 mm) with high kinetic energy accounted for 60 per cent of the total energy (versus 30–40 per cent for other vegetation types). Consequently, unit kinetic energy of throughfall was 28 J m⁻² mm⁻¹ under miconia, compared with <24 J m⁻² mm⁻¹ for rainfall and <20 J m⁻² mm⁻¹ under ‘ōhi‘a . These data, combined with the observation of limited protective ground cover under miconia, show the potential for accelerated erosion occurring on forest floors in stands of invasive miconia. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A simple passive sampler for measuring ammonia emission in the field

A new type of passive sampler for the determination of NH₃ emission from land surfaces and manure storages was tested in a micrometereological mass balance method. The sampler consists of 2 glass tubes, each with a length of 10 cm and an internal diameter of 0.7 cm. The two glass tubes are connected in series, with one end fitted with a thin stainless steel disc having a 1 mm hole in the center. The inner surface of each glass tube is coated with oxalic acid. The results show that the passive flux sampler can be used to give accurate determinations of NH₃ emission. The passive flux sampler makes gas washing bottles, pumps, flow meters, anemometers, and electricity unnecessary and ammonia loss can be determined easily and cheaply without the requirement of a large labor force.