胞外呼吸菌在污染物迁移与转化过程中的应用进展

胞外呼吸菌是在厌氧条件下氧化有机物产生电子,进而将电子传递至胞外电子受体并产生能量维持自身生长的一类微生物,在重金属和有机污染物迁移转化过程中发挥着重要作用,且菌群的协同作用效果较单一微生物更为显著。胞外呼吸菌在自然环境中广泛存在,主要集中在变形菌门(Proteobacteria)、放线菌门(Acidobacteria)和厚壁菌门(Firmicutes),且多数为革兰氏阴性菌,其中希瓦氏菌(Shewanella oneidensisi MR-1)和地杆菌(Geobacter sulfurreducens)是研究较为深入的胞外呼吸模式菌。目前已知的5种胞外电子传递机制包括直接电子传递、电子穿梭体、应电运动、纳米导线和细胞间电子传递机制,各种机制非独立存在而是共同作用以促进污染物降解。文章从胞外呼吸菌的种类、胞内与胞外电子传递机制等方面进行综述,并着重论述了胞外呼吸菌在污染物迁移转化中的最新应用进展,为更好地发挥其环境效应提供参考。     

土壤微生物—腐殖质—矿物间的胞外电子传递机制研究进展

微生物胞外电子传递是地球表层系统元素循环与能量交换的重要驱动力。近年来,以微生物—腐殖质—矿物之间电子转移为核心的生物地球化学过程得到重视,拓展了以带电的土壤胶体与离子之间的相互作用为重心的土壤界面过程的内涵,成为地球表层系统物质间相互作用新的关注点,启示我们从化学与生物两个角度重新认识地球表层系统过程。本文从微生物、腐殖质和矿物等要素入手,综述了其地球化学角色与功能,讨论了它们之间的相互关系以及胞外电子传递的途径与方式;从热力学的角度探讨了胞外电子传递过程的能量变化,从动力学的角度探讨了胞外电子传递的传质与速率;介绍了若干胞外电子传递的研究方法;并提出了今后需要重点关注的重要科学问题。     

稻—油轮作下有机替代对土壤胞外酶活性及多功能性的影响

通过田间定位试验,研究有机肥替代部分化肥对稻—油轮作体系下土壤胞外酶活性及多功能性的影响,为稻—油轮作体系土壤培肥和合理施肥提供理论依据。试验基于总养分替代原则,以不施肥为对照(CK),设置全量化肥(CF)、有机肥替代20%化肥(CFM1)及有机肥替代40%化肥(CFM2)处理,测定土壤化学性质、微生物学性质和土壤胞外酶活性,应用多元回归分析探讨土壤性质对土壤胞外酶活性及多功能性的影响。结果表明:与CF处理相比,CFM1、CFM2处理的微生物量碳、氮和土壤呼吸在油菜季平均增加275.27%,41.90%和64.29%;而在水稻季平均增加115.06%,338.32%,60.87%。有机肥替代部分化肥也显著提高土壤有机质、全氮、全磷和速效养分含量,增幅为13.25%~95.48%。相比单施化肥,有机肥替代部分化肥显著增加油菜季土壤β—葡糖苷酶、纤维素酶、木聚糖酶、亮氨酸氨基肽酶、N—乙酰—β—D—氨基葡糖苷酶和酸性磷酸酶等碳氮磷循环相关胞外酶活性,增幅为20.33%~140.31%;而在水稻季,只有木聚糖酶活性显著增加,增幅为133.63%~159.86%。油菜季土壤胞外酶活性变化的关键因子为土壤微生物量碳,而水稻季的则为土壤速效磷。相比不施肥和单施化肥,有机肥替代处理显著增加土壤多功能性,油菜季土壤多功能性的主要预测因子和调控因子主要是速效钾和速效氮含量,而水稻季的则为速效磷和微生物量氮。总之,有机肥替代部分化肥有利于土壤养分、土壤胞外酶活性和多功能性提高,是维持作物稳产和保持土壤生物健康的重要措施。     

添加葡萄糖和胞外多糖条件下土壤细菌多样性与青枯病病原菌入侵关系研究

微生物多样性、病原菌入侵及微生物群落物质利用的关系尚未系统阐明。本研究通过土壤悬液梯度稀释并外源添加方法构建不同多样性的微生物群落,借以研究土壤微生物多样性与青枯病病原菌(青枯菌)入侵的关系,并通过添加低分子量葡萄糖和高分子量胞外多糖探索物质添加对土壤微生物多样性与病原菌入侵关系的影响。结果表明土壤悬液梯度稀释并外源添加方法能有效构建不同多样性的微生物群落。随着森林和菜地土壤微生物多样性的上升,青枯菌入侵成功率均逐渐降低。此外,添加葡萄糖至不同微生物多样性土壤中均能显著促进青枯菌的生长,而胞外多糖仅在土壤微生物多样性较高时(即竞争较为激烈时)可体现对青枯菌生长的促进作用。综上,土壤微生物多样性与病原菌入侵成功率呈负相关关系,这一关系受土壤微生物群落来源影响较小,物质添加能降低微生物多样性对病原菌入侵的抑制能力,但是该效应与碳源的性质有关。     

固氮菌酸性胞外多糖生物合成的基因调控（综述）

细菌酸性胞外多糖的结构具有多样性、生物合成涉及装配、多聚化及运输三个过程，基因调节系统复杂而又严格，在共生固氮中与侵染线性成密切相关，本文系统论述了根瘤菌酸性胞外多糖的生物合成及其基因调节的分子机理并介绍了联合固氮细菌酸性胞外多糖的研究进展。     

苔藓结皮及其下层土壤的胞外酶活性与微生物CUE特征

为进一步明确苔藓结皮对下层土壤养分的影响及微生物对养分的利用特征,以黄土丘陵区典型退耕地上发育的苔藓结皮及其下层土壤(0—2 cm,2—5 cm,10—20 cm)为研究对象,分析在剖面尺度下土壤碳(C)、氮(N)、磷(P)养分状况、胞外酶活性以及微生物CUE特征。结果表明:苔藓结皮显著提高了表层土壤养分含量,结皮层的SOC,TN,TP,DOC,DON和Olsen-P含量分别是10—20 cm土壤养分的2.58,2.34,1.13,2.30,4.30,7.36倍。与养分含量特征一致,微生物生物量随土层深度的增加逐渐降低。在整个剖面尺度上,微生物群落存在较为稳定的元素内稳态以保持自身C,N,P的计量平衡。参与C,N,P循环的相关胞外酶活性在剖面尺度上表现出差异,β-1,4-葡萄糖苷酶(BG)随深度增加逐渐降低,而β-1,4-N-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶(NAG)和碱性磷酸酶(AP)则表现为先降低后增加的趋势,底层土壤较高的NAG和AP酶活性反映出N,P养分的匮乏。微生物CUE在剖面尺度上表现为先降低后增加的趋势,平均水平为0.25,表明表层与深层土壤更有助于C的固存。此外,方差分解(VPA)和线性模型结果均指出养分状况和土壤酶是影响微生物CUE的关键因素。总的来说,苔藓结皮对表层土壤的养分和微生物代谢产生积极作用,尽管底层土壤养分匮乏,但仍保持较高的微生物C利用效率。     

长期施肥对红壤稻田土壤微生物生物量和酶活性的影响

研究长期施肥下红壤双季稻田土壤胞外酶活性(EEAs)变化特征及其主要驱动因子,可为该地区稻田土壤培肥和合理施肥提供理论依据。选择持续了37a的长期定位试验的不施肥(CK)、化肥(NPK)、高倍化肥(HNPK)和化肥有机肥配施(NPKM)4个处理,采用微孔板荧光法测定了土壤胞外酶活性,分析了土壤化学指标和土壤微生物生物量碳(MBC)和微生物生物量氮(MBN),并通过主成分分析和冗余分析探讨土壤胞外酶分布特征及其与土壤养分和微生物生物量碳氮的关系。研究结果显示,长期施肥提高了土壤养分含量和水稻产量;与CK处理相比,NPKM处理土壤MBC和MBN分别提高了60.2%和60.4%,土壤α-葡萄糖苷酶(AG)、β-葡萄糖苷酶(BG)、乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶(NAG)和酸性磷酸酶(ACP)活性分别提高12.7%、41.1%、36.2%和50.0%,酚氧化酶(POX)活性下降29.7%。红壤稻田土壤EEAs的变化主要由养分因子驱动,其中土壤全氮(TN)和MBC是关键的决定因子,分别解释了酶活性变异的34.3%和20.9%。化肥配施有机肥有利于土壤养分、微生物生物量和土壤胞外酶活性提高,是维持作物高产和提升土壤质量最优的施肥管理措施。     

接种单细胞微生物对土壤团聚体形成及其稳定性的影响

将根瘤菌（Rhizobium sp.）G-01、肠杆菌（Enterobacter sp.）San8及粘红酵母（Rhodotorula mucilaginosa）R1等3株产胞外多聚物（Extracellular polymeric substances,EPS）的单细胞微生物接种于供试土壤,进行土培试验和盆栽黄瓜试验,研究接种微生物及作物根系对土壤团聚体形成、团聚体组成变化的影响。结果表明,3株单细胞微生物分泌EPS的量分别为2.12 mg（1010 cells）?1、0.56 mg（1010 cells）?1、172.71 mg（1010 cells）?1,其主要组分是多糖、其次是蛋白质,且含有羟基、羧基、羰基等官能团;土培试验后,接种产EPS单细胞微生物处理土壤的大团聚体（> 0.25 mm）含量比接种丝状微生物处理提高了71.31%,而盆栽试验后各处理土壤的大团聚体含量（> 0.25 mm）比土培试验后土壤显著增加,这可能是由于植株根系挤压及其分泌物作用促进了土壤大团聚体形成并提高了团聚体稳定性所致。     

固沙林恢复土壤酶化学计量特征与养分限制效应

[目的]探究土壤胞外酶及酶化学计量比对沙漠化土地植被恢复过程的响应特征及其养分限制效应，可深入揭示人工固沙林重建植被过程养分转化能力与机理。[方法]基于时空替代法，以榆林毛乌素沙区的半固定沙地为(0 a)对照、选择恢复25～56 a灌木与乔木固沙林时间序列样地，测定分析了0—10 cm和10—20 cm土层的胞外酶活性、酶生态化学计量的演变特征及其限制微生物养分需求效应。[结果]随着植被恢复年限增加，两种林地土壤β-葡萄糖苷酶(BG)、β-1,4-乙酰氨基葡萄糖苷酶(NAG)、亮氨酸氨肽酶(LAP)和碱性磷酸酶(AP)活性在不同土层均呈显著升高趋势。但酶活性的不均衡变化也显著改变了土壤酶化学计量特征，56 a植被恢复过程中，土壤酶C∶N,C∶P,N∶P呈增加趋势。土壤胞外酶化学计量比也表明植被恢复期间微生物生长受N限制显著增加，P限制并不明显，仅在乔木林恢复25 a时10—20 cm土层中出现P限制。[结论]固沙林植被恢复显著提升了土壤酶活性，增强了土壤碳氮代谢的能力，且在恢复过程中土壤微生物活动主要受到N养分的限制。     

区分纯根呼吸和根际微生物呼吸的争议

定量区分土壤呼吸各组成成分是评价陆地生态系统地下 C 平衡和能量平衡的重要基础.目前,国际上有关区分纯根呼吸和根际微生物呼吸出现了较大的争议,争议的焦点集中于根呼吸、根际微生物呼吸和自养呼吸等术语的涵义及区分纯根呼吸和根际微生物呼吸的必要性两个方面.不同研究者对术语理解的差异以及不同研究之间区分方法、研究目的和实验尺度的不同,是争议产生的主要根源.此外,实验技术的不足也增加了区分纯根呼吸和根际微生物呼吸的不确定性.目前,在全球变暖的背景下,地下生态系统C素的分配和流动将发生很多未知变化.根际微系统作为地下生态系统的重要组成部分,其C素流动和微生物区系的变化将对土壤C库及土壤温室气体排放产生深刻影响.纯根呼吸和根际微生物呼吸作为根际微系统中C索分配的两个重要去向,定量区分两者将成为土壤呼吸各组分区分研究的下一个重要内容.     

Extracellular DNA in soil and sediment: fate and ecological relevance

The review discusses origin, state and function of extracellular DNA in soils and sediments. Extracellular DNA can be released from prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells and can be protected against nuclease degradation by its adsorption on soil colloids and sand particles. Laboratory experiments have shown that DNA adsorbed by colloids and sand particles can be taken up by prokaryotic competent cells and be involved in natural transformation. Most of these experiments have been carried out under artificial conditions with pure DNA molecules and pure adsorbing matrices, but in soils and sediments, pure surface-reactive colloids are not present and DNA is present with other cellular components (wall debris, proteins, lipids, RNA, etc.) especially if released after cell lysis. The presence of inorganic compounds and organic molecules on both soil particles and DNA molecules can influence the DNA adsorption, degradation and transformation of competent cells. Extracellular DNA can be used as C, N and P sources by heterotrophic microorganisms and plays a significant role in bacterial biofilm formation. The nucleotides and nucleosides originated from the degradation of extracellular DNA can be re-assimilated by soil microorganisms. Extracellular DNA in soil can be leached and moved by water through the soil profile by capillarity. In this way, the extracellular DNA secreted by a cell can reach a competent bacterial cell far from the donor cell. Finally, the characterisation of extracellular DNA can integrate information on the composition of the microbial community of soil and sediments obtained by analysing intracellular DNA.     

Regulation of extracellular protease activity in soil in response to different sources and concentrations of nitrogen and carbon

A large proportion of the nitrogen (N) in soil is in the form of proteinaceous material. Its breakdown requires the activity of extracellular proteases and other decomposing enzymes. The goal of our study was to better understand how carbon (C) and N availability affect soil protease activity. Several aerobic incubations were carried out with ammonium (NH₄⁺) and proteins as N sources and cellulose as the main C source. A strong increase in protease activity was observed when proteins were added, the increase depending on the amount of protein added and its solubility. Protease synthesis was clearly substrate induced, as NH₄⁺ had no effect. During this substrate induced phase, the addition of glucose but not NH₄⁺ resulted in protease repression, indicating that the level of protease synthesis was determined by the need for C rather than N. After 1 month of incubation, protease activity remained relatively constant over time and was closely related to microbial biomass N. Different concentrations of mineral N in soil solution had no direct effect on protease activity. However, during this stationary phase, protease activity could be repressed by glucose and NH₄⁺ in a treatment with low mineral N content while in treatments with a higher N availability no repression was observed. We hypothesize that the need for N determined protease activity in the treatment with limited N availability. The addition of NH₄⁺ allowed for reallocation of C and N away from protease synthesis, leading to the observed decrease in protease activity. The repression by glucose may be attributed to shifts in the pathway of microbial NH₄⁺ assimilation. The results emphasize the close links between the microbially mediated cycles of organic C and N.     

长期秸秆还田对水稻土团聚体有机碳及胞外酶的影响

土壤团聚体有机碳和胞外酶对于改善土壤结构和提高土壤碳固存能力至关重要，且易受农艺生产措施的影响。为探讨秸秆还田下土壤有机碳组分及胞外酶活性变化，开展了35年水稻-小麦轮作试验。本试验设置了无肥区(CK)、化肥区(NPK)和秸秆还田+化肥区(NPKS)，研究了不同农艺措施对土壤团聚体有机碳(SOC)及其活性组分（可溶性有机碳(DOC)、易氧化有机碳(EOC)、微生物生物量碳(MBC)）含量与碳循环相关胞外酶（β-1,4-葡萄糖苷酶(BG)、β-1,4-木糖苷酶(BX)、β-D-纤维二糖水解酶(CBH)）活性的影响。结果发现，大于0.25 mm团聚体中SOC、DOC和MBC含量显著高于小于0.25 mm粒级，且均以NPKS处理的效果最优，促进了土壤大团聚体有机碳组分更新。各粒级团聚体中MBC/SOC和DOC/SOC比值相对稳定，这表明MBC和DOC与SOC的动态变化趋势较为一致，可作为评价土壤有机碳的敏感指标。2~0.25 mm粒级是团聚体胞外酶主要载体，均以NPKS处理活性最高；但大于2 mm团聚体酶活性在不同农艺措施之间差异不显著。土壤团聚体中有机碳组分与胞外酶表现为互相促进的关系，其中SOC、DOC和MBC分配差异的主要影响因子为CBH，次要影响因子是BG；而EOC仅受到CBH的正向影响。CBH和BG可促进土壤有机碳周转，且在2~0.25 mm大团聚体中互促作用更剧烈。综上，长期秸秆还田配施化肥不仅有利于提升大团聚体碳的更新和周转速率，还提高了SOC含量，是稻田土壤可持续固碳的重要农艺途径。     

Application of para-nitrophenol (pNP) enzyme assays in degraded tropical soils

Enzyme activities have been used as indicators of soil quality and changes in biogeochemical function due to management or perturbations. The objective of this study was to answer a number of methodological questions regarding sampling schemes, sample handling recommendations, and assay procedures to facilitate the use of enzyme assays in the tropical highlands of East Africa. We used para-nitrophenol (pNP) based substrates for five enzymes: β-glucosidase, cellobiohydrolase, chitinase, acid phosphatase, and alkaline phosphatase. In the first experiment, we examined sampling procedures and compared the results of determining enzyme activities on a plot using composite or discrete samples. Composite samples usually had higher activities than the means of individual cores (P<0.05), but relative ranking of sites was the same if analyses were based on composite or discrete samples. In the second experiment, we examined the effects of storage time and conditions on enzyme activity. Enzyme activity degraded rapidly in frozen samples, but was better maintained in samples stored at 4 °C. Phosphatase and cellobiohydrolase activity declined after 14 days of storage, while the activity of the other enzymes remained close to the values of fresh samples for 28 or more days. In the third experiment, we examined the effect of the addition of an antiseptic, toluene, to prevent bacterial growth during the assay. We found no consistent toluene effect (P>0.4), probably because the assays were of short duration and microbial growth was minimized. Finally, we looked at the incubation time necessary to produce reliable results. Phosphatases, with relatively high activities could reliably be determined in 2 h incubations, but the other enzymes had much lower activities and required longer incubation times for reliable determination. For the enzymes we looked at, 4 h was a good standard time for determining the activity of even the lowest activity enzymes. The results of this study provide practical guidelines for applying these enzyme assays in the degraded tropical soils.     

The oribatid mite Scheloribates moestus (Acari: Oribatida) alters litter chemistry and nutrient cycling during decomposition

It is widely accepted that microarthropods influence decomposition dynamics but we know relatively little about their effects on litter chemistry, extracellular enzyme activities, and other finer-scale decomposition processes. Further, few studies have investigated the role of individual microarthropod species in litter decomposition. The oribatid mite Scheloribates moestus Banks (Acari: Oribatida) is abundant in many U.S. ecosystems. We examined the potential effects of S. moestus on litter decomposition dynamics and chemical transformations, and whether these effects are influenced by variation in initial litter quality. We collected corn and oak litter from habitats with large populations of S. moestus and in microcosms with and without mites measured respiration rates, nitrogen availability, enzyme activities, and molecular-scale changes in litter chemistry. Mites stimulated extracellular enzyme activities, enhanced microbial respiration rates by 19% in corn litter and 17% in oak litter over 62 days, and increased water-extractable organic C and N. Mites decreased the relative abundance of polysaccharides in decomposing corn litter but had no effect on oak litter chemistry, suggesting that the effects of S. moestus on litter chemistry are constrained by initial litter quality. We also compared the chemistry of mite feces to unprocessed corn litter and found that feces had a higher relative abundance of polysaccharides and phenols and a lower relative abundance of lignin. Our study establishes that S. moestus substantially changes litter chemistry during decomposition, but specific effects vary with initial litter quality. These chemical transformations, coupled with other observed changes in decomposition rates and nutrient cycling, indicate that S. moestus could play a key role in soil C cycling dynamics.     

Responses of extracellular enzymes to simple and complex nutrient inputs

Soil microbes produce extracellular enzymes that mineralize organic matter and release carbon and nutrients in forms that can be assimilated. Economic theories of microbial metabolism predict that enzyme production should increase when simple nutrients are scarce and complex nutrients are abundant; however, resource limitation could also constrain enzyme production. We tested these hypotheses by monitoring enzyme activities and nutrient pools in soil incubations with added simple and complex nutrient compounds. Over 28 days of incubation, we found that an enzyme's activity increased when its target nutrient was present in complex but not simple form, and carbon and nitrogen were available. β-Glucosidase and acid phosphatase activities also increased in treatments where only carbon and nitrogen were added. Glycine aminopeptidase and acid phosphatase activities declined in response to ammonium and phosphate additions, respectively. In some cases, mineralization responses paralleled changes in enzyme activity—for example, β-glucosidase activity increased and respiration was 5-fold greater in soil incubations with added cellulose, ammonium, and phosphate. However, a doubling of acid phosphatase activity in response to collagen addition was not associated with any changes in phosphorus mineralization. Our results indicate that microbes produce enzymes according to ‘economic rules’, but a substantial pool of mineral stabilized or constitutive enzymes mediates this response. Enzyme allocation patterns reflect microbial nutrient demands and may allow microbes to acquire limiting nutrients from complex substrates available in the soil.     

The implications of exoenzyme activity on microbial carbon and nitrogen limitation in soil: a theoretical model

Traditional models of soil organic matter (SOM) decomposition are all based on first order kinetics in which the decomposition rate of a particular C pool is proportional to the size of the pool and a simple decomposition constant (dC/dt=kC). In fact, SOM decomposition is catalyzed by extracellular enzymes that are produced by microorganisms. We built a simple theoretical model to explore the behavior of the decomposition-microbial growth system when the fundamental kinetic assumption is changed from first order kinetics to exoenzymes catalyzed decomposition (dC/dt=KC×Enzymes). An analysis of the enzyme kinetics showed that there must be some mechanism to produce a non-linear response of decomposition rates to enzyme concentration—the most likely is competition for enzyme binding on solid substrates as predicted by Langmuir adsorption isotherm theory. This non-linearity also induces C limitation, regardless of the potential supply of C. The linked C and N version of the model showed that actual polymer breakdown and microbial use of the released monomers can be disconnected, and that it requires relatively little N to maintain the maximal rate of decomposition, regardless of the microbial biomass’ ability to use the breakdown products. In this model, adding a pulse of C to an N limited system increases respiration, while adding N actually decreases respiration (as C is redirected from waste respiration to microbial growth). For many years, researchers have argued that the lack of a respiratory response by soil microbes to added N indicates that they are not N limited. This model suggests that conclusion may be wrong. While total C flow may be limited by the functioning of the exoenzyme system, actual microbial growth may be N limited.     

Fine scale variability in soil extracellular enzyme activity is insensitive to rain events and temperature in a mesic system

While soil extracellular enzyme assays (EEAs) are frequently used to infer soil microbial function, the data typically reflect a small number of sampling points across a season, and it is unclear to what extent soil EEA may vary on the time scale of days to weeks. Rain events, in particular, may cause rapid shifts in EEA, and fine scale temporal data are needed to properly assess the generality of EEA data collected at coarser time scales. We examined soil EEA 2-3 times per week in the field from June to November in the context of natural rain events and temperature fluctuations, and explored how long-term water addition altered EEA responses. We also tested the short-term effects of water addition on the distribution of EEA in intact soil mesocoms and leachate. There was little temporal variation in EEA for the hydrolases phosphatase, N-acetyl-glucosaminidase and β-glucosidase, despite the occurrence of multiple large rain events and large soil temperature fluctuations. Phenol oxidase activity correlated significantly with seasonal trends in temperature and soil moisture, but was highly variable at short time scales, and the latter did not correlate significantly with short-term changes in soil microclimate. EEA generally increased in response to long-term water addition, and in soil mesocosms water addition did not significantly redistribute EEA among the upper and lower soil layers, and leachate EEA was three orders of magnitude lower than soil EEA. Overall, our results reveal relatively minor short-term variation in EEA for hydrolase enzymes, and no discernable response to temperature fluctuations or precipitation over the short term. However, high short-term variation in phenol oxidase activity suggests that it may be difficult to infer temporal trends in EEA for this enzyme from a limited number of sampling points.     

Microbial community composition shapes enzyme patterns in topsoil and subsoil horizons along a latitudinal transect in Western Siberia

Soil horizons below 30 cm depth contain about 60% of the organic carbon stored in soils. Although insight into the physical and chemical stabilization of soil organic matter (SOM) and into microbial community composition in these horizons is being gained, information on microbial functions of subsoil microbial communities and on associated microbially-mediated processes remains sparse. To identify possible controls on enzyme patterns, we correlated enzyme patterns with biotic and abiotic soil parameters, as well as with microbial community composition, estimated using phospholipid fatty acid profiles. Enzyme patterns (i.e. distance-matrixes calculated from these enzyme activities) were calculated from the activities of six extracellular enzymes (cellobiohydrolase, leucine-amino-peptidase, N-acetylglucosaminidase, chitotriosidase, phosphatase and phenoloxidase), which had been measured in soil samples from organic topsoil horizons, mineral topsoil horizons, and mineral subsoil horizons from seven ecosystems along a 1500 km latitudinal transect in Western Siberia. We found that hydrolytic enzyme activities decreased rapidly with depth, whereas oxidative enzyme activities in mineral horizons were as high as, or higher than in organic topsoil horizons. Enzyme patterns varied more strongly between ecosystems in mineral subsoil horizons than in organic topsoils. The enzyme patterns in topsoil horizons were correlated with SOM content (i.e., C and N content) and microbial community composition. In contrast, the enzyme patterns in mineral subsoil horizons were related to water content, soil pH and microbial community composition. The lack of correlation between enzyme patterns and SOM quantity in the mineral subsoils suggests that SOM chemistry, spatial separation or physical stabilization of SOM rather than SOM content might determine substrate availability for enzymatic breakdown. The correlation of microbial community composition and enzyme patterns in all horizons, suggests that microbial community composition shapes enzyme patterns and might act as a modifier for the usual dependency of decomposition rates on SOM content or C/N ratios.     

Flavonoids as inducers of extracellular proteins and exopolysaccharides of Sinorhizobium fredii

 Some flavonoids present in root exudates are inducers of nod genes in rhizobia-legume symbioses. They also induce changes in the molecular weight, structure, and level of secretion of some extracellular proteins, exopolysaccharides (EPS) and lipopolysaccharides. We showed that incubation of Sinorhizobium fredii USDA 257 with four flavonoids (genistein, naringenin, chrysin, and apigenin) promoted its growth in the late log phase. By contrast, only genistein accelerated the growth of S. fredii TU 6 under the same conditions. When both strains were incubated with naringenin the synthesis of EPS decreased. However, this compound increased the secretion of extracellular proteins in the early log phase. The specific mode of action of naringenin is still not clear. Received: 1 July 1998