Long-term tillage effects on the distribution patterns of microbial biomass and activities within soil aggregates

The effects of tillage on the interaction between soil structure and microbial biomass vary spatially and temporally for different soil types and cropping systems. We assessed the relationship between soil structure induced by tillage and soil microbial activity at the level of soil aggregates. To this aim, organic C (OC), microbial biomass C (MBC) and soil respiration were measured in water-stable aggregates (WSA) of different sizes from a subtropical rice soil under two tillage systems: conventional tillage (CT) and a combination of ridge with no-tillage (RNT). Soil (0–20 cm) was fractionated into six different aggregate sizes (> 4.76, 4.76–2.0, 2.0–1.0, 1.0–0.25, 0.25–0.053, and < 0.053 mm in diameter). Soil OC, MBC, respiration rate, and metabolic quotient were heterogeneously distributed among soil aggregates while the patterns of aggregate-size distribution were similar among properties, regardless of tillage system. The content of OC within WSA followed the sequence: medium-aggregates (1.0–0.25 mm and 1.0–2.0 mm) > macro-aggregates (4.76–2.0 mm) > micro-aggregates (0.25–0.053 mm) > large aggregates (> 4.76 mm) > silt + clay fractions (< 0.053 mm). The highest levels of MBC were associated with the 1.0–2.0 mm aggregate size class. Significant differences in respiration rates were also observed among different sizes of WSA, and the highest respiration rate was associated with 1.0–2.0 mm aggregates. The C_mic/C_org was greatest for the large-macroaggregates regardless of tillage regimes. This ratio decreased with aggregate size to 1.0–0.25 mm. Soil metabolic quotient (qCO₂) ranged from 3.6 to 17.7 mg CO₂ g^− 1 MBC h^− 1. The distribution pattern of soil microbial biomass and activity was governed by aggregate size, whereas the tillage effect was not significant at the aggregate scale. Tillage regimes that contribute to greater aggregation, such as RNT, also improved soil microbial activity. Soil OC, MBC and respiration rate were at their highest levels for 1.0–2.0 mm aggregates, suggesting a higher biological activity at this aggregate size for the present ecosystem.     

玉米秸秆全量深翻还田对高产田土壤结构的影响

为达到玉米生产耕层最适深度(22 cm)和耕层最适土壤容重(1.1~1.3 g×cm~(-3)),解决内蒙古平原灌区耕层浅、犁底层坚硬且厚的农田土壤结构问题,分别选用连续1、2、3、4年秸秆深翻还田定位试验地,秋收后玉米秸秆全量粉碎深翻还田,秸秆年均还田量为20 034.97 kg×hm-2,形成秸秆深翻还田1~4年的4个试验处理(SF1-SF4),以不深翻秸秆还田的处理为对照(CK),研究土壤容重、土壤坚实度、土壤团聚体及其稳定性、土壤肥力及p H随不同年限秸秆深翻还田的变化规律。结果表明:1)SF1-SF4处理0~40 cm土层,土壤容重和土壤坚实度比CK显著减小。2)0~20 cm土层,SF4处理0.25 mm团聚体比例(R0.25)、几何平均直径(GWD)和平均重量直径(MWD)均比CK显著减小;SF1处理土壤团聚体破坏率(PAD)比CK显著降低9.56%,不稳定指数(SWA)随深翻年限增加而显著降低;团聚体分形维数SF4比CK显著增大7.30%。3)20~40 cm土层,SF1和SF2处理R0.25比CK分别显著增加13.69%和17.83%;SF2处理的MWD和GWD分别比CK显著增加23.92%和53.38%;SF1-SF4处理的PAD比CK显著降低,且SF2显著高于SF1和SF3;而SF1-SF4的SWA比CK显著增加,且随秸秆深翻年限的增加呈逐渐升高趋势;团聚体分形维数SF2比CK显著降低7.39%。4)土壤有机质含量SF1-SF4比CK显著增加,且SF2-SF4处理显著大于SF1;速效氮、速效磷和速效钾SF1-SF4比CK显著增加,土壤p H SF3、SF4比CK显著降低。总之,深翻秸秆还田1~4年对0~40 cm土层土壤影响显著;深翻秸秆还田2年适合土壤犁底层结构的改良,深翻秸秆还田3年和4年适合土壤耕层结构的改良。玉米秸秆全量深翻还田既能达到耕作土壤的目的,同时也增加了土壤有机质,降低土壤团聚体破坏率和土壤水稳性团聚体的不稳定系数,利于培肥耕层土壤。     

Impact of Collembola and Enchytraeidae on soil surface roughness and properties

The aim of the study was to quantify the alteration of soil surface roughness caused by the casting activity of mesofauna. Undisturbed soil monoliths with a surface area of 5000mm² were taken from the upper 4cm of the Ap-horizon in agricultural land. Two tillage systems were studied: conventional tillage (CT) and conservation tillage (CS). The sampling plots were mechanically compacted by wheeling with graded loads. Sampling occurred in spring after compaction and before seeding. The soil monoliths were defaunated before inoculating one half of the monoliths with 150 individuals of Collembola (Folsomia candida) and the other half with 100 individuals of Enchytraeidae (90% Enchytraeus minutus and 10% E. lacteus). Soil surface roughness was measured using a noncontact laser scanner: before inoculation and 6 months later. Photographs show the soil surface covered with casts. Results from laser scanning show that in most cases the surface roughness increased due to mesofaunal activity. However, roughness decreased when cracks were filled with casts. The casting activity and surface roughness changes are highest in uncompacted soil. A high degree of soil compaction significantly reduced the activity at the surface. In most cases the soil surface is more altered in CT than in CS. When the content of carbon and nitrogen were determined, both elements were accumulated in the casts but more by Collembola than Enchytraeidae. The results are discussed in the context of the hemiedaphic (F. candida) and the euedaphic (Enchytraeus spp.) mode of living. Received: 6 December 1996     

Suitability of terrestrial laser scanning for studying surface roughness effects on concentrated flow erosion processes in rangelands

Surface roughness is thought to affect concentrated flow erosion – a major mechanism of soil loss on disturbed rangelands. However, quantifying surface roughness in the field at appropriately fine spatial scales is laborious and the scale at which to conduct meaningful roughness measurements is difficult to discern. Rapid, objective, and repeatable field methods are therefore needed to accurately measure surface roughness across a range of spatial scales to advance our understanding and modeling of concentrated flow erosion processes. Surface roughness can be derived from surface topography mapped at the sub-cm level using a field-portable terrestrial laser scanner (TLS). To test the suitability of terrestrial laser scanning for studying surface roughness effects on erosion processes in rangelands, we used concentrated flow simulation techniques at 8.5 m² plots that were randomly placed at rangeland sites in southeastern Oregon and southwestern Idaho, USA. Local surface roughness (locRMSH) was calculated as the standard deviation of TLS mapped surface heights within moving windows varying in size from 30 × 30 to 90 × 90 mm. The mean locRMSH of the eroded area and entire plot were negatively correlated (r² > 0.71, RMSE < 95.97 g min^− 1, and r² > 0.74, RMSE < 90.07 g min^− 1, respectively) with concentrated flow erosion. The strength of the locRMSH–erosion relationship and regression model parameters were affected by the moving window size, emphasizing the scale dependence of the locRMSH–erosion relationship. Adjusting locRMSH for slope effects decreased the strength of the locRMSH–erosion relationship from r² < 0.83 to < 0.26. Our results indicate that TLS is a useful tool to enhance our current understanding of the effect of surface roughness on overland flow erosion processes and advance hydrologic and erosion model parameter development. Further research is needed to evaluate the locRMSH – concentrated flow erosion relationship over a wider range of soil properties, surface conditions, and spatial extents.     

Variation of soil respiration at three spatial scales: Components within measurements, intra-site variation and patterns on the landscape

Soil respiration is an important component of terrestrial carbon cycling and can be influenced by many factors that vary spatially. This research aims to determine the extent and causes of spatial variation of soil respiration, and to quantify the importance of scale on measuring and modeling soil respiration within and among common forests of Northern Wisconsin. The potential sources of variation were examined at three scales: [1] variation among the litter, root, and bulk soil respiration components within individual 0.1 m measurement collars, [2] variation between individual soil respiration measurements within a site (<1 m to 10 m), and [3] variation on the landscape caused by topographic influence (100 m to 1000 m). Soil respiration was measured over a two-year period at 12 plots that included four forest types. Root exclusion collars were installed at a subset of the sites, and periodic removal of the litter layer allowed litter and bulk soil contributions to be estimated by subtraction. Soil respiration was also measured at fixed locations in six northern hardwood sites and two aspen sites to examine the stability of variation between individual measurements. These study sites were added to an existing data set where soil respiration was measured in a random, rotating, systematic clustering which allowed the examination of spatial variability from scales of <1 m to 100+ m. The combined data set for this area was also used to examine the influence of topography on soil respiration at scales of over 1000 m by using a temperature and moisture driven soil respiration model and a 4 km² digital elevation model (DEM) to model soil moisture. Results indicate that, although variation of soil respiration and soil moisture is greatest at scales of 100 m or more, variation from locations 1 m or less can be large (standard deviation during summer period of 1.58 and 1.28 μmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹, respectively). At the smallest of scales, the individual contributions of the bulk soil, the roots, and the litter mat changed greatly throughout the season and between forest types, although the data were highly variable within any given site. For scales of 1-10 m, variation between individual measurements could be explained by positive relationships between forest floor mass, root mass, carbon and nitrogen pools, or root nitrogen concentration. Lastly, topography strongly influenced soil moisture and soil properties, and created spatial patterns of soil respiration which changed greatly during a drought event. Integrating soil fluxes over a 4 km² region using an elevation dependent soil respiration model resulted in a drought induced reduction of peak summer flux rates by 37.5%, versus a 31.3% when only plot level data was used. The trends at these important scales may help explain some inter-annual and spatial variability of the net ecosystem exchange of carbon.     

Soil carbon sequestration in phytoliths

The role of the organic carbon occluded within phytoliths (referred to in this text as ‘PhytOC‘) in carbon sequestration in some soils is examined. The results show that PhytOC can be a substantial component of total organic carbon in soil. PhytOC is highly resistant to decomposition compared to other soil organic carbon components in the soil environments examined accounting for up to 82% of the total carbon in well-drained soils after 1000 years of organic matter decomposition. Estimated PhytOC accumulation rates were between 15 and 37% of the estimated global mean long-term (i.e. on a millenial scale) soil carbon accumulation rate of 2.4 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ indicating that the accumulation of PhytOC within soil is an important process in the terrestrial sequestration of carbon. The rates of phytolith production and the long-term sequestration of carbon occluded in phytoliths varied according to the overlying plant community. The PhytOC yield of a sugarcane crop was 18.1 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹, an accumulation rate that is sustainable over the long-term (millenia) and yet comparable to the rates of carbon sequestration that are achievable (but only for a few decades) by land use changes such as conversion of cultivated land to forest or grassland, or a change of tillage practices from conventional to no tillage. This process offers the opportunity to use plant species that yield high amounts of PhytOC to enhance terrestrial carbon sequestration.     

Temporal change in spatial variability of soil respiration on a slope of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) forest

Although information regarding the spatial variability of soil respiration is important for understanding carbon cycling and developing a suitable sampling design for estimating average soil respiration, it remains relatively understudied compared to temporal changes. In this study, soil respiration was measured at 35 locations by season on a slope of Japanese cedar forest in order to examine temporal changes in the spatial distribution of soil respiration. Spatial variability of soil respiration varied between seasons, with the highest coefficient variation in winter (42%) and lowest in summer (26%). Semivariogram analysis and kriged maps revealed different patterns of spatial distribution in each season. Factors affecting the spatial variability were relief index (autumn), soil hardness of the A layer (winter), soil hardness at 50 cm depth (spring) and the altitude and relief index (summer). Annual soil respiration (average: 39 mol m⁻² y⁻¹) varied from 26 mol m⁻² y⁻¹ to 55 mol m⁻² y⁻¹ between the 35 locations and was higher in the upper part of the slope and lower in the lower part. The average Q₁₀ value was 2.3, varying from 1.3 to 3.0 among the locations. These findings suggest that insufficient information on the spatial variability of soil respiration and imbalanced sampling could bias estimates of current and future carbon budgets.     

Microbial biomass and activity at various soil depths in a Brazilian oxisol after two decades of no-tillage and conventional tillage

The advantages of no-tillage (NT) over conventional tillage (CT) systems in improving soil quality are generally accepted, resulting from benefits in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. However, most evaluations have only considered surface soil layers (maximum 0-30 cm depth), and values have not been corrected to account for changes in soil bulk density. The objective of this study was to estimate a more realistic contribution of the NT to soil fertility, by evaluating C- and N-related soil parameters at the 0-60 cm depth in a 20-year experiment established on an oxisol in southern Brazil, with a soybean (summer)/wheat (winter) crop succession under NT and CT. At full flowering of the soybean crop, soil samples were collected at depths of 0-5, 5-10, 10-20, 20-30, 30-40, 40-50 and 50-60 cm. For the overall 0-60 cm layer, correcting the values for soil bulk density, NT significantly increased the stocks of C (18%) and N (16%) and microbial biomass C (35%) and N (23%) (MB-C and -N) in comparison to CT. Microbial basal respiration and microbial quotient (qMic) were also significantly increased under NT. When compared with CT, NT resulted in gains of 0.8 Mg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (67% of which was in the 0-30 cm layer) and 70 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (73% in the 0-30 cm layer). In the 0-5-cm layer, MB-C was 82% higher with NT than with CT; in addition, the 0-30 cm layer accumulated 70% of the MB-C with NT, and 58% with CT. In comparison to CT, the NT system resulted in total inputs of microbial C and N estimated at 38 kg C ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ and 1.5 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹, respectively. Apparently, N was the key nutrient limiting C and N stocks, and since adoption of NT resulted in a significant increase of N in soils which were deficient in N, efforts should be focused on increasing N inputs on NT systems.     

Effects of mulching on soil physical properties and runoff under semi-arid conditions in southern Spain

Application of crop residues to soil and reduced or no tillage are current management practices in order to achieve better water management, increase soil fertility, crop production and soil erosion control. This study was carried out to quantify the effect of wheat straw mulching in a no tilled Fluvisol under semi-arid conditions in SW Spain and to determine the optimum rate in terms of cost and soil protection. After a 3-years experiment, mulching application significantly improved physical and chemical properties of the studied soil with respect to control, and the intensity of changes was related to mulching rate. The organic matter content was generally increased, although no benefit was found beyond 10 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹. Bulk density, porosity and aggregate stability were also improved with increasing mulching rates, which confirmed the interactions of these properties. Low mulching rates did not have a significant effect on water properties with respect to control, although the available water capacity increased greatly under high mulching rates. After simulated rainfall experiments (65 mm h⁻¹ intensity), it was found that the mulch layer contributed to increase the roughness and the interception of raindrops, delaying runoff generation and enhancing the infiltration of rain water during storms. Mulching contributed to a reduction in runoff generation and soil losses compared to bare soil, and negligible runoff flow or sediment yield were determined under just 5 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ mulching rate. It was observed that during simulations, the erosive response quickly decreases with time after prolonged storms (30 min) due to the exhaustion of available erodible particles. These results suggest that the erosive consequences of intermediate intensity 5-years-recurrent storms in the studied area could be strongly diminished by using just 5 Mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ mulching rates.     

CO2 emission in an intensively cultivated loam as affected by long-term application of organic manure and nitrogen fertilizer

A long-term field experiment was conducted to examine the influence of mineral fertilizer and organic manure on the equilibrium dynamics of soil organic C in an intensively cultivated fluvo-aquic soil in the Fengqiu State Key Agro-Ecological Experimental Station (Fengqiu county, Henan province, China) since September 1989. Soil CO₂ flux was measured during the maize and wheat growing seasons in 2002-2003 and 2004 to evaluate the response of soil respiration to additions and/or alterations in mineral fertilizer, organic manure and various environmental factors. The study included seven treatments: organic manure (OM), half-organic manure plus half-fertilizer N (NOM), fertilizer NPK (NPK), fertilizer NP (NP), fertilizer NK (NK), fertilizer PK (PK) and control (CK). Organic C in soil and the soil heavy fraction (organo-mineral complex) was increased from 4.47 to 8.61 mg C g⁻¹ and from 3.32 to 5.68 mg C g⁻¹, respectively, after the 13 yr application of organic manure. In contrast, organic C and the soil heavy fraction increased in NPK soil to only 5.41 and 4.38 mg C g⁻¹, respectively. In the CK treatment, these parameters actually decreased from the initial C concentrations (4.47 and 3.32 mg C g⁻¹) to 3.77 and 3.11 mg C g⁻¹, respectively. Therefore, organic manure efficiently elevated soil organic C. However, only 66% of the increased soil organic C was combined with clay minerals in the OM treatment. Cumulative soil CO₂ emissions from inter-row soil in the OM and NPK treatments were 228 and 188 g C m⁻² during the 2002 maize growing season, 132 and 123 g C m⁻² during the 2002/2003 wheat growing season, and 401 and 346 g C m⁻² yr⁻¹ in 2002-2003, respectively. However, during the 2004 maize growing season, cumulative soil CO₂ emissions were as high as 617 and 556 g C m⁻², respectively, due to the contribution of rhizosphere respiration. The addition of organic manure contributed to a 16% increase in soil CO₂ emission in 2002-2003 (compared to NPK), where only 27%, 36% and 24% of applied organic C was released as CO₂ during the 2002 and 2004 maize growing seasons and in 2002-2003, respectively. During the 2002/2003 wheat growing season, soil CO₂ flux was significantly affected by soil temperature below 20 °C, but by soil moisture (WFPS) during the 2004 maize growing season at soil temperatures above 18 °C. Optimum soil WFPS for soil CO₂ flux was approximately 70%. When WFPS was below 50%, it no longer had a significant impact on soil CO₂ flux during the 2002 maize growing season. This study indicates the application of organic manure composted with wheat straw may be a preferred strategy for increasing soil organic C and sequestering C in soil.     

地表糙度与径流水力学参数响应规律模拟

为了明确地表糙度与坡面径流特征及其水力学参数之间的相互作用,通过模拟人工锄耕、人工掏挖、等高耕作和对照组直型坡等4种不同糙度的地表,在室内模拟降雨条件下,对不同糙度坡面上的径流特征和水力学参数(雷诺数、弗劳德数、阻力系数和水流剪切力)以及降雨前后地表糙度的变化进行了测量与计算。结果表明,雨前雨后各措施坡面的地表糙度为:等高耕作人工掏挖人工锄耕直型坡。相同雨强和降雨历时下,不同糙度坡面其径流特征差异显著。初始地表糙度越大的坡面,径流越容易稳定在层流状态;反之,径流越倾向于往紊流发展。对人工锄耕、人工掏挖、等高耕作3种耕作措施来说,在相同雨强和降雨历时下,初始糙度越大的坡面,其断面流量、径流量和产沙量越小。坡面初始地表糙度越大,径流阻力系数也越大,但坡面径流的雷诺数、弗劳德数和径流剪切力则越小,径流对地表糙度具有减小作用,雷诺数和水流剪切力越大,径流对地表糙度的减小作用越弱。研究结果为深入理解坡面地表糙度与其水文特征之间的相互作用提供参考。     

Long-term record and analysis of soil temperatures and soil heat fluxes in a grassland area, The Netherlands

A 27-year soil temperature record at five depths and soil heat flux record at one depth were analyzed for a grassland area in The Netherlands. The annual mean soil temperature of the last 23 years of soil measurements (no data gaps) showed a statistically significant increase of about 1.0 °C, consistent with the observed air temperature increase of about 1.3 °C for the same period. This positive trend correlates well with global brightening of 5.3 W m⁻² per decade. The 10-day mean soil temperature varied smoothly throughout the year with relatively small inter-annual variability. The deeper the measurement depth, the smoother the annual cycle and the smaller the variability. In February and at the end of the year the variability appears to be somewhat larger. A Fast Fourier Transform was applied to the measurements and revealed an annual and daily damping depth of 1.80 m and 0.10 m, respectively. An example of the usefulness of this data is provided for agriculture, where an aggressive root-knot nematode is affected by the mean soil temperature increase. It appears that the 600 degree day life-cycle threshold is reached 16 days earlier, which may lead to a potential serious increase in agriculture crop damage.     

Spatial variability of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) mineralisation potential at a millimetre scale in soil

We analysed the ability of soil units of millimetre size to mineralise a herbicide, 2,4-D, using incubations of individual aggregates (2-7 mm diameter) and 6×6×6 mm³ cubes dissected from soil cores, under standard conditions. Mineralisation of ¹⁴C-ring labelled 2,4-D was measured using a barite paper trap and a Phosphorimager to record the evolved ¹⁴C-CO₂ from these very small soil samples. We found a large variability of 2,4-D mineralisation potential between aggregate size classes, between individual aggregates of the same size and between the different dissected cubes from a given core. We explained this variability by an uneven distribution of the degrading microorganisms at this scale, and to a lesser extent, an uneven distribution of C, necessary for co-metabolism. Furthermore, we found that in a soil core, the dissected cubes with a large mineralisation potential were not randomly distributed, but rather organised into centimetre sized hot spots.     

Variability in soil properties at different spatial scales (1 m-1 km) in a deciduous forest ecosystem

The purpose of this research was to test the hypothesis that variability in 11 soil properties, related to soil texture and soil C and N, would increase from small (1 m) to large (1 km) spatial scales in a temperate, mixed-hardwood forest ecosystem in east Tennessee, USA. The results were somewhat surprising and indicated that a fundamental assumption in geospatial analysis, namely that variability increases with increasing spatial scale, did not apply for at least five of the 11 soil properties measured over a 0.5-km² area. Composite mineral soil samples (15 cm deep) were collected at 1, 5, 10, 50, 250, and 500 m distances from a center point along transects in a north, south, east, and westerly direction. A null hypothesis of equal variance at different spatial scales was rejected (P?0.05) for mineral soil C concentration, silt content, and the C-to-N ratios in particulate organic matter (POM), mineral-associated organic matter (MOM), and whole surface soil. Results from different tests of spatial variation, based on coefficients of variation or a Mantel test, led to similar conclusions about measurement variability and geographic distance for eight of the 11 variables examined. Measurements of mineral soil C and N concentrations, C concentrations in MOM, extractable soil NH₄-N, and clay contents were just as variable at smaller scales (1-10 m) as they were at larger scales (50-500 m). On the other hand, measurement variation in mineral soil C-to-N ratios, MOM C-to-N ratios, and the fraction of soil C in POM clearly increased from smaller to larger spatial scales. With the exception of extractable soil NH₄-N, measured soil properties in the forest ecosystem could be estimated (with 95% confidence) to within 15% of their true mean with a relatively modest number of sampling points (n?25). For some variables, scaling up variation from smaller to larger spatial domains within the ecosystem could be relatively easy because small-scale variation may be indicative of variation at larger scales.     

Twenty years of tillage research in subarctic Alaska: I. Impact on soil strength, aggregation, roughness, and residue cover

Soil properties and surface characteristics affecting wind erosion can be manipulated through tillage and crop residue management. Little information exists, however, that describes the impact of long term tillage and residue management on soil properties in the subarctic region of the United States. This study examines the impact of 20 years of tillage and residue management on a broad range of physical properties that govern wind erosion processes on a silt loam in interior Alaska. A strip plot experimental design was established in 1983 and included intensive tillage (autumn and spring disk), spring disk, autumn chisel plow, and no tillage with straw either retained on or removed from the soil surface. Soil and residue properties measured after sowing barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) in May 2004 included penetration resistance, soil water content, shear stress, bulk density, random roughness, aggregate size distribution, and residue cover and biomass. No tillage was characterized by larger aggregates, greater soil strength (penetration resistance and shear stress), wetter soil, and greater residue cover compared to all other tillage treatments. Despite crop failures the previous 2 years, crop residue management influenced residue biomass and cover, but not soil properties. Autumn chisel and spring disk appeared to be viable minimum tillage options to intensive tillage in controlling erosion. Autumn chisel and spring disk promoted greater roughness, aggregation, and residue cover as compared with intensive tillage. Although no tillage appeared to be the most effective management strategy for mitigating wind erosion, no tillage was not a sustainable practice due to lack of weed control. No tillage also resulted in the formation of an organic layer on the soil surface over the past 20 years, which has important ramifications for long term crop production in the subarctic where the mean annual temperature is <0 °C.     

Soil CO2 flux in six monospecific forest plantations in Southern Rwanda

Forest soils contain the largest carbon stock of all terrestrial biomes and are probably the most important source of carbon dioxide (CO₂) to atmosphere. Soil CO₂ fluxes from 54 to 72-year-old monospecific stands in Rwanda were quantified from March 2006 to December 2007. The influences of soil temperature, soil water content, soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) stocks, soil pH, and stand characteristics on soil CO₂ flux were investigated. The mean annual soil CO₂ flux was highest under Eucalyptus saligna (3.92 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹) and lowest under Entandrophragma excelsum (3.13 μmol m⁻² s⁻¹). The seasonal variation in soil CO₂ flux from all stands followed the same trend and was highest in rainy seasons and lowest in dry seasons. Soil CO₂ flux was mainly correlated to soil water content (R² = 0.36-0.77), stand age (R² = 0.45), soil C stock (R² = 0.33), basal area (R² = 0.21), and soil temperature (R² = 0.06-0.17). The results contribute to the understanding of factors that influence soil CO₂ flux in monocultural plantations grown under the same microclimatic and soil conditions. The results can be used to construct models that predict soil CO₂ emissions in the tropics.     

Spatial distribution pattern changes of oasis soil types in Manasi River Basin,arid northwestern China

Soil distribution pattern play a significant role in the stability conservation and economic development of oasis in arid regions. Hence, ecologists and agrology scientists have a central interest in understanding the spatial distribution changes of soil types. The aim of this study was to analyze the main processes of soil distribution pattern changes from 1987 to 2006 through the landscape indexes. Soil types and soil distribution pattern changes were assessed and compared by using two soil maps made in 1987 and 2006. 14 soil types were classified and analyzed in the study area. Results indicated many differences among the changes of different soil types. During the period from 1987 to 2006, there were widespread changes in spatial distribution of soil types in Manasi River Basin at class-level. The area of Petrocambids decreased, whereas Aquicambids increased. The small patches began to coalesce into large ones and the patch numbers decreased during the past 20 years, which brought about the fragmentation decrease in Manasi River Basin. In contrast to the decrease of the patch density, the average patch area of 12 soil types increased. With the increasing man-made disturbance, more soil type patches, especially the agricultural soil patches were close to square in shape. During the recent 20 years, the decreased patch shape indexes occupied about 57% of all while the increased patch shape indexes were over 40%. The split index of most soil types has also declined during the same period. The landscape-level indexes also reflected the spatial distribution changes of oasis soil types. The landscape diversity index and landscape evenness index have increased while the landscape dominance index has decreased in the recent 20 years, which showed that more equirotal soil patches were formed and various soil types dominated the soil landscape in Manasi River Basin. Changes of different soil types are one of major indictors to show environment changes and impacts of human activities. Therefore, it is necessary to emphasize the study of soil type changes in the arid and semiarid region.     

不同人为管理措施坡面地表微地形变化特征及其对渗流的响应

探究不同人为管理措施坡耕地地表微地形变化特征,阐明地表微地形变化对渗流响应,以期为紫色土坡耕地水土流失的有效防治与人为管理措施的合理布设提供科学依据。以平整坡面、穴播坡面和垄作坡面为研究对象,基于室内人工模拟渗流试验,开展5°和15°紫色土坡面微地形变化特征研究。结果表明：(1)渗流试验前后平整坡面、垄作坡面和穴播坡面微地形半方差函数在0～135°和180°～315°方向上呈中心对称分布,随地表坡度的增加分布范围逐渐缩小,且具有明显的方向性。渗流条件下,平整坡面和穴播坡面微地形各向异性的变化趋势较为一致,而垄作坡面微地形空间变异性较强。(2)渗流条件下,3种人为管理措施坡面高程均集中于-20～0 mm的变化区域,穴播坡面和垄作坡面高程值的分布较平整坡面离散。(3)与5°坡面相比,15°平整坡面地表糙度的变化对渗流的响应更为明显,且糙度变化率呈平整坡面>穴播坡面>垄作坡面;渗流作用下,各坡面中、下坡位地表糙度变幅较大。坡面初始起伏程度越剧烈,微地形对渗流侵蚀作用的骤变响应越明显。地表糙度可作为刻画坡面微地形响应渗流变化的指标,可较好地实现中、下坡位土壤侵蚀—沉积空间分布的表征...     

Changes in soil biological and biochemical characteristics in a long-term field trial on a sub-tropical inceptisol

Soil organic carbon (SOC), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), their ratio (MBC/SOC) which is also known as microbial quotient, soil respiration, dehydrogenase and phosphatase activities were evaluated in a long-term (31 years) field experiment involving fertility treatments (manure and inorganic fertilizers) and a maize (Zea mays L.)-wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)-cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L.) rotation at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute near New Delhi, India. Applying farmyard manure (FYM) plus NPK fertilizer significantly increased SOC (4.5-7.5 g kg⁻¹), microbial biomass (124-291 mg kg⁻¹) and microbial quotient from 2.88 to 3.87. Soil respiration, dehydrogenase and phosphatase activities were also increased by FYM applications. The MBC response to FYM+100% NPK compared to 100% NPK (193 vs. 291 mg kg⁻¹) was much greater than that for soil respiration (6.24 vs. 6.93 μl O₂ g⁻¹ h⁻¹) indicating a considerable portion of MBC in FYM plots was inactive. Dehydrogenase activity increased slightly as NPK rates were increased from 50% to 100%, but excessive fertilization (150% NPK) decreased it. Acid phosphatase activity (31.1 vs. 51.8 μg PNP g⁻¹ h⁻¹) was much lower than alkali phosphatase activity (289 vs. 366 μg PNP g⁻¹ h⁻¹) in all treatments. Phosphatase activity was influenced more by season or crop (e.g. tilling wheat residue) than fertilizer treatment, although both MBC and phosphatase activity were increased with optimum or balanced fertilization. SOC, MBC, soil respiration and acid phosphatase activity in control (no NPK, no manure) treatment was lower than uncultivated reference soil, and soil respiration was limiting at N alone or NP alone treatments.