Soil surface infiltration capacity classification based on the bi-directional reflectance distribution function sampled by aerial photographs. The case of vineyards in a Mediterranean area

Spatially distributed hydrological modelling is required to understand and predict erosion, flooding and pollution risks that affect the vine cultivated Mediterranean environment. Previous field studies have demonstrated the dominant influence of soil surface features on overland flow and they therefore constitute an essential input to the hydrological model. In this paper we propose a remote sensing based method to map vineyard soil surface features with a spatial and temporal resolution appropriate for integration into the model. Our goal was to classify each soil surface portion in accordance with a pre-established, field measured infiltration capacity based typology. The radiometric characteristics of the classes of this typology were measured in the field and their Bi-directional Reflectance Distribution Function (BRDF) was modelled. Vineyard sunlit soil surface pixels were automatically extracted from high spatial resolution scanned aerial colour photographs Wassenaar et al., 2001 and Wassenaar et al., 2002. These pixels are radiometrically classified by comparison of their reflectance with BRDF-based reflectance predictions of each soil surface type for the specific illumination and viewing geometry of the pixel.The results show that most hydrological soil surface classes have distinct bi-directional radiometric properties. For one given geometric configuration however, the predicted reflectance ranges of some classes can considerably overlap (tilled soils and stone layers for example), while others can always unambiguously be identified (bare soil crusts, surfaces covered for more than 50% by weed or litter).We conclude that our fuzzy classification approach and the simple radiometric information used, allow us to identify the majority of the hydrological surface types. The method can easily be transposed in time and space. Its performance quite strongly depends on the radiometric and geometric accuracy of the input data. Significant improvements in soil surface classification precision are expected from considering spatial context information and monitoring the soil surface evolution.     

Assessing the variability of soil surface characteristics in row-cropped fields: The case of Mediterranean vineyards in Southern France

Spatial patterns of soil surface characteristics (SSC) are important factors for heterogeneity in runoff and infiltration processes in row-cropped fields. The objective of this paper is to analyse the spatial heterogeneity of SSC in the case of a vineyard in order to propose an adequate sampling strategy. A preliminary field survey was carried out to obtain a quantitative assessment of SSC. The experimental layout consisted of 3 wire-trained vine subplots with 3 different soil treatment. 60 observations per subplot were conducted using the line transect method. Their locations were determined according to a stratified sampling design conceived in accordance with the geometric structure of the vineyard system, defined by the alignment of vine rows and the direction of the main slope. The spatial heterogeneity of SSC was analysed at intra-transect and inter-transect levels using measurements of structural crust, sedimentary crust, grass and organic litter. The characterization of intra-transect heterogeneity, using join-count statistics, allowed patches of homogeneous units of attributes to be detected and hence an appropriate sampling resolution and an adequate transect length to be determined. A sampling resolution of 10 cm on a 1.25 m length transect was found to be appropriate for the observation of homogeneous units of attributes. Analysis of inter-transect heterogeneity, using non-spatial statistics, revealed considerable variability between rows and inter-rows that must be accounted for during field surveys. The role of site topography on spatial patterning of SSC attributes across the plot and the need to stratify the plot into areas with homogeneous slope were also demonstrated. Finally, the t-test procedure indicated that the minimum sample size was found to be 200 transect/ha for a minimum precision rate of 80% in the values of SSC attributes.     

Pluviometric gradient incidence and the hydrological behaviour of soil surface components (southern Spain)

The hydrological response of Mediterranean hillslopes depends on the type of soil surface components (SSC) which is controlled by the strongly climate. Along a Mediterranean climatic gradient, the type of soil surface component is modified as the aridity increases: biotic ones (annual plants, litter, moss and lichens) used to be more significant under humid climatic conditions, whereas abiotic ones (crusts, rock fragments and outcrops), under semiarid conditions. The aim of the study is to analyse the hydrological behaviour of different types of SSC in three field sites under different Mediterranean climatic conditions to (1) confirm whether the pluviometric gradient factor affects their hydrological response, and (2) whether, in each field site, SSC play the same role as controlling factors of infiltration processes. The method is based on grouping explanatory variables (related to precipitations, topography, vegetal cover, soil moisture and some soil physical, chemical and hydrological properties) through factorial analysis being applied for both regional and local approaches. The results confirm that the type of soil surface component acts as regulator of soil hydrological processes along the pluviometric gradient as well as at every field site, and show that the role played by the type of soil surface component is a much more significant key‐factor for the hydrological response of soils under dry‐Mediterranean climatic conditions. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

黄土高原六道沟小流域坡面土壤入渗特性的空间变异研究

水蚀风蚀交错带是黄土高原水土流失最为严重的地区,研究其不同地类土壤的入渗特性及其空间变异规律,有助于揭示黄土高原土壤侵蚀过程和生态环境的脆弱性以及流域水文模型精度的提高。本研究选取在水蚀风蚀交错带的强烈侵蚀中心六道沟小流域进行,采用双环定水头入渗法,在六道沟流域内一个长375m的完整天然坡面上网格布点,应用传统统计学方法和地统计学方法对稳定入渗率和前30min累积入渗量等土壤入渗特性重要参数的空间变异结构进行了研究,结果表明:(1)土壤稳定入渗率和前30min累积入渗量的变异系数分别为0.480和0.404,在坡面上的变异程度均呈现中等变异性;(2)两个入渗特性参数的试验半方差函数与理论半方差函数均拟合较好,自相关特征距离分别为126m和226m;块金值均大于0,表明在采样间隔范围内可能存在更小尺度的空间变异,要进一步研究在采样间隔内是否具有更小尺度的空间相关特征,可以增加采样密度来分析。     

基于神经网络与决策树的土壤粗糙度测量

利用野外拍摄照片判读土壤粗糙度是一种简单快速的测算方法。为了克服人工判读处理效率低、结果易受人为因素影响和目前的计算机自动读取结果易受野外杂草影响、自动化程度有待提高的缺点,提出了一种基于神经网络和决策树的土壤粗糙度测量方法。该方法在建立神经网络时充分考虑土壤边界线、白板边缘及参考方框的特征选取输入特征向量,消除噪声影响,实现图像边缘检测;并在此基础上建立决策树区分白板、土壤、参考方框等信息,完成土壤边界线和比例尺的获取。野外试验中不可避免有杂草和光照的影响,考虑到阴影、土壤和杂草色彩的差异性,决策树判决准则的选择不仅包含了纹理信息而且考虑了色彩信息。试验表明,基于神经网络与决策树的土壤粗糙度测量采用带有简单方框的参考白板能快速高效地从复杂的野外照片中获取土壤粗糙度信息,降低了拍摄要求。自动提取结果与人工判读相比,所得均方根高度的误差在5%以内,相关长度的计算误差在1%以内,具有较高的精度和可靠性。该研究方法为土壤粗糙度实时在线测算提供了有效的解决方案。     

Identification of key soil and terrain properties that influence the spatial variability of soil moisture throughout the growing season

Combining soils and terrain information is the key to understanding hydrological processes at a landscape scale. Increasing the scale of soil maps has been shown to allow the spatial patterns of soil moisture to be more fully represented in the landscape, but soil data are often only available at reconnaissance scales (e.g. 1:250 000). It is widely acknowledged that soil hydrological properties vary within the landscape and there are widely available digital terrain models at a 10-m grid resolution in the UK. The aim of this study was to investigate soil moisture variations and how soil and terrain data can be used in combination to explain the spatial variation in soil moisture contents. Field monitoring of surface soil moisture content on eight occasions in three different fields in Bedfordshire (UK) was undertaken between April and July in 2004 and 2005. Between 100 and 120 points were sampled in each survey using a Delta-T ML2x™ Theta Probe. The results from regression models show that up to 80% of the variation in surface soil moisture can be explained using 1:10 000 soil series maps and terrain variables. Short-wave radiation on a sloping surface (SWRSS), calculated by SRAD, and a topographic wetness index combined explained a maximum of 44% of the variation. The results show that the terrain effect on soil moisture is modified by soils. The additional variation explained by adding 1:10 000 soil series information to terrain variables was up to 50% and adding 1:25 000 soil series information increased the variation explained by up to 29%. The interactions in the variation explained by soils and landscape indices at different scales tie in with the concept of hydropedology. It also has implications for data requirements for modelling soil hydrological response and associated soil functions.     

区域土壤侵蚀模型参数选择

分布式水文模型相对与集总式水文模型，以其具有明确物理意义的参数结构和对空间分异性的全面反映，能更好地模拟真实的降水径流形成等水文过程。将区域尺度上的土壤水力侵蚀过程视为水文循环的一部分，基于对水土流失过程分析，考虑尺度问题的影响，对其中部分环节进行概化，借鉴前人对区域土壤侵蚀问题因子研究的成果，分析总结了建立基于GIS的区域尺度上分布式水蚀过程模型需要的参数，并讨论了参数的入选原则及其在模型中的应用方式。     

生物结皮土壤-水文-侵蚀效应研究进展

生物土壤结皮(简称生物结皮)是由隐花植物、微小生物和土壤表层颗粒胶结形成的一种特殊复合体,广泛分布于各类气候和生境条件。作为生态系统的重要组分,生物结皮在不同生物气候区土壤的生态过程、水文过程、生物过程、地球化学循环过程以及生态修复过程中发挥着重要作用。从生物结皮影响土壤物理、化学、生物学性质以及土壤水文与侵蚀过程等方面对其生态功能进行总结和概述,在此基础上,从研究区域和时空尺度、多过程耦合机制、生物结皮影响氮循环的过程及其对氮沉降的响应机制、生物结皮与维管植物空间分布及互动关系等方面,展望了该领域有待深化的问题及今后的发展方向,以期促进我国生物结皮相关研究工作,加深对生物结皮生态功能及地表过程的认识。     

结合统计和数字地形数据的可视化方法预测土壤深度

Information about the spatial distribution of soil attributes is indispensable for many land resource management applications; however, the ability of soil maps to supply such information for modern modeling tools is questionable. The objectives of this study were to investigate the possibility of predicting soil depth using some terrain attributes derived from digital elevation models (DEMs) with geographic information systems (GIS) and to suggest an approach to predict other soil attributes. Soil depth was determined at 652 field observations over the Al-Muwaqqar Watershed (70 km²) in Jordan. Terrain attributes derived from 30-m resolution DEMs were utilized to predict soil depth. The results indicated that the use of multiple linear regression models within small watershed subdivisions enabled the prediction of soil depth with a difference of 50 cm for 77% of the field observations. The spatial distribution of the predicted soil depth was visually coincided and had good correlations with the spatial distribution of the classes amalgamating three terrain attributes, slope steepness, slope shape, and compound topographic index. These suggested that the modeling of soil-landscape relationships within small watershed subdivisions using the three terrain attributes was a promising approach to predict other soil attributes.     

The role of soil surface conditions in regulating runoff and erosion processes on a metamorphic hillslope (Southern Spain): Soil surface conditions,runoff and erosion in Southern Spain

This study presents the results of an analysis into the role of soil surface conditions in the regulation of soil hydrology and erosive processes at one hillslope under dry Mediterranean climatic conditions. The methodology was based on the analysis of hillslope surface components and their hydrological and erosive function on a patch to scale by means of rainfall simulation and experimental plots. The results showed the existence of a complex eco-geomorphological system composed of a multitude of vegetation patches distributed at random on the hillslope, and where the presence of different surface conditions on the soil can have a sizeable influence on hydrological and erosive behavior. From the hydrological point of view, the runoff generation mechanisms follow a seasonal pattern depending on the moisture of the soil with a different spatial condition, with frequent hydrological disconnections between parts of the hillslope, as in other Mediterranean mountainous regions. Soil surface rock fragments, the layout of tussocks intra-hillslope and previous soil moisture as dynamic control factors in the hydrological and erosive processes are all important.     

基于决策树模型的土壤性质空间推断

许多水文、生态环境和土地管理规划的决策当中,都迫切需要空间连续的土壤性质信息来提高其建模和决策的精确性和可靠性。依靠传统土壤调查技术获得的土壤图则无法满足这种需求。本研究以浙江省龙游县研究区为例,利用第二次土壤普查的土壤性质数据,生成土壤性质-环境因子空间数据库。运用决策树建模方法将土壤性质含量与一些易于广泛观测的景观属性,包括地形、地质、土地利用和遥感影像建立联系,从而将有关土壤性质含量分布的知识转入一种清楚的、定量的、与环境因子相关联的规则系统中,并以此来预测研究区土壤性质的连续空间分布。研究结果表明,所建立的决策树模型可以解释75～81%的土壤性质空间变异。     

Characterizing soil surface roughness using a combined structural and spectral approach

The ability to quantitatively and spatially assess soil surface roughness is important in geomorphology and land degradation studies. This paper describes the results of an experiment designed to investigate whether hyperspectral directional reflectance factors can describe fine‐scale variations in soil surface roughness. A Canadian silt loam soil was sieved to an aggregate size range of 1–4.75 mm and exposed to five different artificial rainfall durations to produce soils displaying progressively decreasing levels of surface roughness. Each soil state was measured using a point laser profiling instrument at 2 mm spatial resolution, in order to provide information on the structure and spatial arrangement of soil particles. Hyperspectral directional reflectance factors were measured using an Analytical Spectral Devices FieldSpec Pro Spectroradiometer (range 350–2500 nm), at a range of measurement angles (θ_r=?60° to +60°) and illumination angle conditions (θ_i= 28°–74°). Directional reflectance factors varied with illumination and view angles, and with soil structure. Geostatistically‐derived indicators of soil surface roughness (sill variance) were regressed with directional reflectance factors. The results showed a strong relationship between directional reflectance and surface roughness (R²= 0.94 where θ_r=?60°, θ_i= 67°–74°). This fine‐scale quasi‐natural experiment allowed the control of slope, initial aggregate size and rainfall exposure, permitting an investigation into factors affecting a soil’s bidirectional reflectance response. This has highlighted the relationship between fine‐scale variations in surface roughness, illumination angle and reflectance response. The results show how the technique could provide a quantitative measure of surface roughness at fine spatial scales.     

Hydrology in a patterned landscape is co-engineered by soil-disturbing animals and biological crusts

Water redistribution has a profound influence on dryland ecosystem function. This hydrological function is largely regulated by ecosystem engineers including biological soil crusts (biocrusts) which produce run-off, and burrowing animals, such as the greater bilby, whose pits capture water. We estimated the relative importance of these two ecosystem engineers in determining infiltration rates in a system where dune slopes shed water to adjacent interdune swales to maximize overall productivity. Also, we determined which biocrust property was most hydrologically important: total cover, composition, patch aggregation or spatial heterogeneity. While both biocrusts and burrowing animals equally affected the overall infiltration through macro- and micropores (under ponding), only biocrusts were important for the infiltration specifically via micropores (under tension). Of the studied biocrust properties, community composition was the strongest influence such that the greater the prevalence of early successional biocrust patches, the greater the infiltration rate. Greater total cover of biocrusts reduced infiltration, and the spatial properties were relatively unimportant. Although bilbies and biocrusts comparably influenced infiltration under ponding at the microscale, realistic cover of bilby pits at the landscape scale is unlikely to strongly impair the hydrological function of dunes. Reintroduction of the endangered bilby may enhance nutrient cycling and plant recruitment via its seed and resource capturing pits, without a concomitant disruption of hydrological function. In contrast, removal of biocrusts caused by, e.g., livestock trampling, is expected to strongly enhance infiltration in the run-off areas, strongly reducing ecosystem productivity at the landscape scale.     

岔巴沟流域汛期径流模拟及地表产流特征分析

气候变化是影响流域水文循环过程的重要驱动因素,近年来,气候变化导致极端降雨—径流事件的频繁发生对人类社会经济发展构成了严重的威胁。因此,迫切需要开展流域水文模拟和产流特征分析。土壤和水评估工具(SWAT)是一种具有物理机制的分布式水文模型,已被广泛用于评价变化环境下的水文过程。以黄土高原岔巴沟流域为研究区,通过利用与黄土高原地区产流模式更为接近的Green-Ampt下渗法驱动SWAT模型模拟了岔巴沟流域日尺度的水文过程,并以水文响应单元为分析对象,结合4个降雨—径流事件的地表产流量和地表径流系数分析了降雨强度和前期土壤含水量对不同土地覆被产流特征的影响。结果表明：(1)基于Green-Ampt下渗法驱动的SWAT模型率定期和验证期E_NS为0.76,0.74,R²为0.78,0.75,模型能够较好地模拟日尺度流域水文过程;(2)流域不同土地覆被下地表径流系数随最大雨强的增加呈显著上升趋势,且最大降雨强度大于16 mm/h后地表径流系数显著增加,当土地覆被为耕地时降雨转化为地表径流的比例最大,其次为草地和林地;(3)前期土壤含水量的大小可以揭示大...     

A multi-scale approach of runoff generation in a Sahelian gully catchment: a case study in Niger

Runoff production conditions in a small gully catchment are studied at four different scales: the point scale (0.001 m²), the local scale (1 m²), the field scale (of the order of 100 m²) and the catchment scale (0.2 km²). At the point scale, infiltration measurements were conducted using a tension infiltrometer. At the local and the field scale, runoff plots were setup on typical soil surface conditions of the catchment (plateau bare soil, hillslope bare soil and fallow grassland). At the catchment scale, stream discharges were measured at two gauging stations.The overland flow yield is significantly nonuniform in space, due to the high spatial variability of infiltration capacities and the depressional storage of the soil surface. The runoff and the infiltration data collected confirmed the major role played by soil crusting on runoff generation in that part of Sahel. At the point scale, hydraulic conductivity measurements have shown that infiltration and runoff were driven by the hydraulic properties of the crust. At the field scale, microtopography and heterogeneity in the soil surface crusting decreased discharge volumes. The influence of vegetation growth on runoff yield was evident in the case of the fallow sites. Analysis of discharge data at the catchment scale highlights that infiltration through the bottom of the gully between two gauging stations leads to considerable runoff water transmission losses.     

基于环境相关法和地统计学的土壤属性空间分布预测

土壤属性是土壤质量的重要决定因素,并强烈影响土地利用和生态过程。正确理解并充分考虑土壤空间变异,对于在景观尺度上建立生态、环境过程模型是必不可少的。在黄土高原横山县采集了254个样点,应用数字地形与遥感影像分析技术,获取相关地形因子与遥感指数,分析土壤属性（土壤容重、有机质和全磷）与环境因子相互关系,并利用环境变量进行空间预测。结果表明,土壤容重、有机质与地形因子和遥感指数之间存在较好相关性,而全磷与地形因子相关性不大;多元线性逐步回归模型对于土壤容重和有机质拟合较好,而对于全磷,预测结果较差;回归－克里格预测有效地减小了残差,消除了平滑效应,与实测值较为接近。     

水蚀风蚀交错带坡面土壤入渗特性的空间变异及其分形特征

研究在水蚀风蚀交错带的强烈侵蚀中心陕北神木县六道沟流域进行。在一个自然完整坡面上网格布点,采用双环定水头入渗法研究了坡面土壤的入渗特性,在应用传统统计学方法的基础上,将分形理论和地统计学方法结合起来对坡面土壤入渗特性的空间变异进行了研究。获得以下结论:(1)稳定入渗率、平均入渗率和前30 min累积入渗量等三个参数的变异系数分别为0.48、0.36与0.40,在坡面上的变异程度属于中等变异性;(2)三个参数的分维值D分别为1.88、1.92与1.85,样本之间土壤特性值的差异较小,短距离的变异影响占主导地位;(3)研究的土壤在一定的空间范围内具有分形特征。稳定入渗率、平均入渗率与前30 min累积入渗量的自相关范围分别为20~120 m2、0~140 m与40~100 m。     

流域侵蚀输沙空间尺度效应及其影响因素研究进展

侵蚀输沙空间变异及其尺度效应是流域水文过程研究的一个重要内容,对流域水土流失控制和水沙资源科学管理具有重要意义。通过对流域侵蚀输沙空间尺度效应研究成果的系统回顾,从坡面到流域,阐述了降雨、土壤和植被等环境要素对侵蚀输沙尺度效应的影响,梳理了尺度效应产生机制方面的认知,总结了不同条件下坡面产流和侵蚀输沙尺度转换的代表性方法。在此基础上,对流域侵蚀输沙空间尺度效应研究的发展趋势进行了讨论,未来应增加新技术和数据的应用,建立具有明确物理机制的侵蚀输沙空间尺度转换方法,同时,急需突破剧烈环境变化对空间尺度效应影响的研究。本文的梳理与总结可为流域侵蚀输沙过程的深入研究提供参考,为土壤侵蚀防治和河流水沙的综合管理提供一定的科学支持。     

Factors Influencing Point Measurement of Near‐surface Saturated Soil Hydraulic Conductivity in a Small Sicilian Basin

Hydraulic conductivity of saturated soil, K _s , controls many hydrological processes. Parameterization of basin hydrological models in terms of K _s is complicated and uncertain owing to the very high spatial variability of this soil property. A small Sicilian basin was intensively sampled by the simplified falling head technique to obtain spatially distributed K _s data, and an attempt to explain their spatial variability on the basis of soil physical characteristics, digital elevation model‐derived topographic attributes and land cover was carried out. High K _s values were obtained when clay content was low and both elevation and mean slope were high. Moreover, differences in K _s among land cover classes were detected. However, soil texture was found to have a main role on K _s variability. This finding was supported by a subsequent intensive sampling of two areas differing by elevation and land cover. The conclusion was that, for the sampled basin, a good knowledge of the spatial distribution of the soil textural fractions is necessary to develop an appropriate sampling plan for K _s , regardless of both the position within the basin and land use. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

电阻率成像法监测人工梭梭林土壤水分

土壤水分是影响干旱半干旱沙区植物生长发育的主要限制因素。快速、准确地监测土壤水分时空动态可为干旱半干旱区植被建设与生态恢复提供科学依据。以乌兰布和沙漠东北部人工梭梭固沙林土壤为研究对象,在林内、外(根际、冠中、冠缘、行间、林外)设置了5条监测样线,分别于一次强降雨后的第2天、第15天、第55天用多电极电阻仪定位测定了土壤电阻率,同步采取土样用烘干法测定了土壤实际含水率,建立了土壤含水率与土壤电阻率之间的相关关系,并对二维剖面土壤水分空间分布特征进行了分析。结果表明:1)土壤含水率与土壤电阻率之间为极显著负相关关系(P0.01),可用幂函数表示。2)5条测线的土壤电阻率在3次监测时均随土层深度增加而减小,而土壤含水量随土层深度增加而增大,根际冠中冠缘行间林外。强降水后的不同时间内,由于受土壤属性、树冠对水分再分配、树干径流、根系吸收水分等影响,二维剖面上土壤水分空间分布格局有明显变化。随着雨后干旱时间的延长,0～51 cm水分含量由于受蒸发、植物吸收利用的影响而明显降低。3)电阻率成像技术在野外能快速准确,长期定位监测土壤水分含量;对地表扰动小,实现了非破坏性测量;保证测定精度的同时,还能提供尺度较大的土壤水分空间分布的详实数据,可高效快速地获取连续的土壤水分分布信息。