Agronomic Adaptation of Some Field Crops: A General Approach

This study is focused on the various agronomic traits to adaptation of cultivated field crops. As known, there is a close and strong relationship between cultivation (also known as domestication) and adaptation. Life has existed for more than 2500 million years on Earth and the birth of agriculture, some 10 000 years ago in the Middle East’s fertile crescent, revolutionized human culture and society. Plants survive (they live and grow) in new and different areas. Adaptations are special features that allow a plant or animal to live in a particular place or habitat. These adaptations might make it very difficult for the plant to survive in a different place. In general, field crops must be placed in an environment that meets their ‘requirements’. The future of agricultural productivity and sustainability depends on the ability of crop plants (here, field crops) to grow and be productive in response to changing environments. The term ‘adaptation’ refers to the ability of different species with different genetic make‐ups to cope with a specific range of circumstances such as climate, food supply, habitat, defence and movement. Adaptations can be structural (shape, skin colour etc.), behavioural (special ways in which a particular organ behaves to survive in its natural habitat), physiological (systems present in an organism for it to perform certain biochemical reactions such as venom, sweat, secreting slime), etc. This explains why certain plants are found in one area, but not in another. You would not see any plant from the Cactaceae family living in the Arctic Regions nor would you see lots of really tall trees living in grasslands! Environmental factors, such as photosynthetic activities, biodiversity and soil conditions, are related to this subject. Each grower should consider vital points such as marketing potential(s), transportation, storage, yield and price, producer’s resources and most importantly, specific plant adaptational requirements and peculiarities. On the other hand, global heating (or global warming) is a most intensive subject and it has an important place. Especially, relationship to field crops, their production and yield levels of this topic's harmful effect(s) must be restricted or removed with proper agronomic action(s).     

主要禾谷类作物DGAT基因家族比较分析

二酰甘油酰基转移酶（DGAT）是三酰甘油合成的限速酶，在植物油脂合成中发挥重要作用。为明确禾谷类作物DGAT基因家族的表达特征，利用已知DGAT成员序列对主要禾谷类作物进行全基因组扫描，分析其亚型差异及表达特点。结果表明，DGAT蛋白具有高脂肪、碱性和不稳定性。系统发育树中DGAT成员聚类为4个亚族，不同亚族成员间平行进化。DGAT基因结构具有组内保守性和组间多样性，基序存在多种类型，不同亚型成员具有特异的结构域组成。DGAT上游序列中，存在植株发育和胁迫响应等多种类型顺式作用元件，说明DGAT广泛参与不同生物学过程。转录组分析结果显示，DGAT广泛存在于不同组织中。在遭遇干旱和低温等不同非生物胁迫时，DGAT受到不同程度诱导，具有时空表达差异性。本研究可为禾谷类作物DGAT基因家族成员功能研究奠定基础。     

大豆抗蚜虫研究进展

大豆蚜虫（Aphis glycines Matsmura）,属同翅目刺吸式口器,是大豆（Glycine max）的主要害虫之一。迄今已经筛选到了十多份抗蚜资源并定位到了12个抗性基因,并发现了3个不同生物型的大豆蚜虫。较禾本科作物抗蚜性遗传相比,大豆或蒺藜苜蓿（Medicago truncatula Gaertn.）对蚜虫抗性的遗传规律相对简单,多为单基因显性遗传,抗性基因多预测为经典的抗病基因（R基因）,具有NBS-LRR结构域,介导基因对基因抗性。目前,植物中已经克隆到几个抗蚜虫基因,也为NBS-LRR类功能基因。本文对以上研究进行了综述与总结,并对大豆抗蚜虫的遗传研究进行了展望。     

植物对磷饥饿的反应研究进展

磷是构成生命的重要元素之一,也是土壤中有效性最低的一种营养元素。我国是世界上最大的小麦生产国。但是我国耕地中有59%的土壤缺磷。农作物的产量常受到缺磷的影响而受损。土壤缺磷并不是土壤中总磷量低,而是土壤中可供植物直接吸收利用的有效态磷含量低。植物在磷饥饿时会发生各种各样的变化,以尽最大可能满足自身对磷的需求。植物对缺磷的反应是一个复杂的网络过程。大约有100多个基因参与了植物对缺磷的反应。其中主要的有磷转运蛋白基因、核糖核酸酶基因、磷酸酶基因等。植物在吸收外界的磷的过程中磷转运蛋白发挥了重要作用。植物磷转运蛋白基因按照序列相似性可以划分为H+/Pi共转运家族(Pht1家族)和Na+/Pi共转运家族(Pht2家族)。按照吸收动力学的标准可以分为高亲和力磷转运蛋白和低亲和力磷转运蛋白两种。磷饥饿时植物对磷吸收能力的增强的原因之一是增加了磷转运蛋白分子的合成数目。目前尽管人们对植物吸收磷的理解已经有了长足的进步,但是在植物对磷的具体调控机制、磷的跨液泡膜运输等重要方面仍然没有明确的结果。     

The potential of somatic hybridization in crop breeding

Summary In recent years, the rapid development of somatic cell genetics has made possible the transfer of alien genes over wide taxonomic distances by somatic hybridization. In this review, the potential of somatic hybridization in the breeding of crops within the Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae and Solanaceae is discussed. It is evident from these studies that many hybrids, either symmetric or asymmetric, which are fertile have the potential to be used as a bridge between the alien species and the crop. Progeny analysis of some hybrid combinations also reveals intergenomic translocations which may lead to the introgression of the alien genes. Furthermore, fusion techniques enable the resynthesis of allopolyploid crops to increase their genetic variability and to restore ploidy level and heterozygosity after breeding at reduced ploidy level in polyploid crops.     

Standorterhebungen zur Stickstoffdynamik nach Anbau von Körnerleguminosen

Field studies on nitrogen dynamics after cultivation of grain legumes Field trials were conducted in order to study the nitrogen dynamics in soil after cultivation of grain legumes and to investigate the possibility of reduction of nitrate leaching due to catch crops or suitable following crops. Accordingly, in 1989/90 soil samples were taken on 12 farms at depths of 0–80 cm in 4 week intervals and analysed for NO₃-N. Furthermore, Brassica napus and Sinapis alba were sown after grain legumes on two farms, and at the experimental station Roggenstein field trials were carried out with different catch crops (Sinapis alba, Raphanus sativus, Lolium multiflorum and Pisum sativum) after grain peas. Considerable amounts of nitrogen (100–150 kg N/ha) in the form of crop residues (straw and grains) were left on the fields cultivated with grain legumes. After harvesting, nitrate content in the soil layer 0–80 cm was on grain legume fields almost twice as high as on fields cultivated with winter wheat. During autumn, the soil nitrate contents increased remarkably. In the soil layer 0–80 cm the maximum values rose to 140 kg N/ha after peas, to 120 kg N/ha after faba beans and only to 65 kg N/ha after winter wheat. The more intensive N-mineralization after peas compared to faba beans is due to a lower C/N-ratio of crop residues and an earlier harvest time of 2-3 weeks of peas. In winter extremely high N-leaching was measured on fallow land after cultivation of grain legumes. Cultivation of catch crops makes it possible to retain up to 110 kg N/ha in plant material. Raphanus sativus and Sinapis alba are most suitable for this purpose due to their high N-uptake even when they are sown late. Ploughing up catch crops in autumn results in a fast mineralization of their immobilized nitrogen. This implies the risk of N-leaching into deeper soil layers during winter, depending on the amount of rainfall and water capacity of the soil. Particularly on soils with low water capacity, early N-mineralization needs to be prevented by cultivating catch crops which freeze off or survive in winter. Cultivation of Brassica napus (winter form) after grain legumes leads to an extensive uptake of soil nitrate before the beginning of the seepage period, and therefore almost excludes enhanced N-leaching.     

Strategies for variety-independent genetic transformation of important cereals, legumes and woody species utilizing particle bombardment

Summary The limiting component in the creation of transgenic crops has been the lack of effective means to introduce foreign genes into elite germplasm. However, the development of novel direct DNA transfer methodology, by-passing limitations imposed by Agrobacterium-host specificity and cell culture constraints, has allowed the engineering of almost all major crops, including formerly recalcitrant cereals, legumes and woody species. The creation of transgenic rice, wheat, maize, barley, oat, soybean, phaseolus, peanut, poplar, spruce, cotton and others, in an efficient and in some cases, variety-independent fashion, is a significant step towards the routine application of recombinant DNA methodology to the improvement of most important agronomic crops. In this review we will focus on key elements and advantages of particle bombardment technology in order to evaluate its impact on the accelerated commercialization of products based on agricultural biotechnology and its utility in studying basic plant developmental processes and function through transgenesis. Fundamental differences between conventional gene transfer methods, utilizing Agrobacterium vectors or protoplast/suspension cultures, and particle bombardment will be discussed in depth.     

生物降解农药残留的研究进展

为了促进农药的降解,减少农作物中的农药残留量,本研究归纳了农药降解的方法,主要包括光解、化学降解和生物降解,分析了各种农药降解方法的优点和缺点,总结了外源物质（农药安全剂、油菜素内酯、褪黑素）促进农作物体内农药降解的途径及机理。指出了寡糖降低作物中农药残留的作用以及可能的机理,提出了关于促进农作物体内农药降解研究方面存在的一些问题以及建议。期望对降低农作物中农药残留有积极作用,对农业具有指导作用。     

Pollination and the yields of tropical crops: An appraisal

Among certain temperate crops such as small seeded legumes and some rosaceous fruits, yields have been influenced by the deliberate introduction into the proximity of the crop of insect pollen vectors.In the tropics tree crops are common and improvement of yields by plant breeding is necessarily long term. It is possible that by raising the density of pollen vectors around certain crops short term increases in yield could be secured.This paper is an attempt to outline the various considerations which would govern the manipulation of pollen vectors in the tropics. There is an assessment of the significance of pollination for cultivated plants and an examination of insect activity within the flower. Pollination studies of several individual crops are then briefly reviewed and some provisional conclusions drawn.     

Passion flower hybrids and their use in the ornamental plant market: perspectives for sustainable development with emphasis on Brazil

The Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae) genus consists of about 500 species widely distributed throughout tropical and subtropical regions, commonly known as the passion flower. The passion flowers are considered ornamental plants because of the exotic beauty of their flowers and variant foliage. Since their introduction to the Old World, around 1625, seventeenth century, they have been used to decorate European glasshouses and gardens. Interspecific hybridization is used to produce single ornamental plants. However in some countries, such as Brazil, being centre of origin of many species, the potential value of these species has hardly been exploited. The beauty of these wild species and their hybrids is little known in Brazil. Therefore it is here intended to highlight the productive and commercial potential of the passion flowers for the purpose to generate an income in family agriculture, while maintaining the ecological balance and optimizing the use of natural resources.     

Ecological aspects of transgenic sugar beet: transfer and expression of herbicide resistance in hybrids with wild beets

Summary An increasing number of genetically engineered cultivars of several crops is being experimentally released into the environment. In future, crops with new transgenic traits will probably play an important role in agricultural practice. The long-term effect of transgenes on community ecology will depend on the distribution and establishment of transgenic plants in the wild, on the sexual transfer of their new genes to the environment and on the potential ecological impact of the transgenic trait. The starting point was the use of transgenic sugar beet lines, Beta vulgaris subspec. vulgaris var. altissima DÖLL (Helm 1957), with transgenes coding for rhizomania and herbicide (BASTA^®) resistance. The first two questions to answer were: Can the transgenes be transferred via pollen to wild beets, Beta vulgaris subspec. maritima (L.) ARCANG. or cultivated relatives such as red beet or spinach beet and are they expressed in the hybrids? Can transgenes be monitored in young Beta vulgaris-hybrids? The experimental transfer of transgenes was conducted in 1993 at a field location in northern Germany. The beets were hand-pollinated with transgenic pollen. In a non destructive biotest, the hybrid seedlings were tested for herbicide resistance. Transgenic plants showed no noxious phenotypic effects whereas control plants developed leaf necroses. All herbicide resistant hybrids within the biotest were assumed to be transgenic.     

Traditional maintenance breeding of landraces: 1. Data by crop

Examples of the methods of traditional maintenance breeding of several crops, cited in literature, are presented. It is concluded that, although crops are grown all over the world, only few examples are sufficiently described. Only for maize some reliable data are available. Three explanations for this small number are 1. the farmers are not aware of their knowledge of growing crops (including traditional maintenance breeding), 2. the interviewers and other scientists are not acquainted with this farmer's knowledge, or 3. most farmers do not actually perform traditional maintenance breeding, as they and their ancestors probably have experienced that traditional maintenance breeding does not result in a better crop. They must have thought that seed replacement was a better method to maintain the yielding capacity of their crops. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Intragenic vectors for gene transfer without foreign DNA

The intragenic vector system involves identifying functional equivalents of vector components from the genome of a specific crop species (or related species to which it can be hybridised) and using these DNA sequences to assemble vectors for transformation of that plant species. This system offers an attractive alternative to current genetic engineering strategies where vectors are based on DNA sequences that usually originate from bacteria. The construction of intragenic vectors enables the well-defined genetic improvement of plants with all transferred DNA originating from within the gene pool already available to plant breeders. In this manner genes can be introgressed into elite cultivars in a single step without linkage drag and without the incorporation of foreign DNA. The resulting plants are non-transgenic, although they are derived using the tools of molecular biology and plant transformation. The use of intragenic vectors for the transfer of genes from within the gene pools of crops may help to alleviate some of the major public concerns over the deployment of GM crops in agriculture, notably the ethical issue associated with the transfer of DNA across wide taxonomic boundaries. This paper reviews the progress toward the development and use of intragenic vectors and the implications of their use for the genetic improvement of crops. Dedicated to the late Hans Sandbrink for his enthusiasm in helping to develop intragenic vectors     

Comparison of rye,triticale, durum wheat and bread wheat genotypes for Fusarium head blight resistance and deoxynivalenol contamination

Small-grain winter cereal crops can be infected with Fusarium head blight (FHB) leading to mycotoxin contamination and reduction in grain weight and quality. Although a number of studies have investigated the genetic variation of genotypes within each small-grain cereal, a systematic comparison of the winter crops rye, triticale, durum and bread wheat for their FHB resistance, Fusarium-damaged kernels (FDK) and deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination across species is still missing. We have therefore evaluated twelve genotypes each of four crops widely varying in their FHB resistance under artificial infection with one DON-producing F. culmorum isolate at constant spore concentrations and additionally at crop-specific concentrations in two environments. Rye and triticale were the most resistant crops to FHB followed by bread and durum wheat at constant and crop-specific spore concentrations. On average, rye accumulated the lowest amount of DON (10.08 mg/kg) in the grains, followed by triticale (15.18 mg/kg) and bread wheat (16.59 mg/kg), while durum wheat had the highest amount (30.68 mg/kg). Genotypic variances within crops were significant (p ≤ .001) in most instances. These results underline the differing importance of breeding for FHB resistance in the different crops.     

Study on Absorption Distribution of Rare Earth Elements in Crops With Rare Earth Fertilizer

The absorption and content distribution of 5REs (La,Ce,Nd,Y and Gd) in 3species of crops (corn,paddy and soybean )have been studied. The results show that there exists the positive relationship between capability of rare earth elements being absorbed by crops and available rare earth elements in soil. Generally,content distribution of rare earth elements in crops are root >leaf >stem >fruit. Distribution of unitary rare earth elements in root is La>Ce>Nd>Y>Gd,and in leaf ,stem and fruit is Ce>La>Nd>Y>Gd. It is proved that light rare earth elements absorbed are easier than heavy rare earth elements. In addition ,capability of rare earth elements absorbed in crops growing is seedling >ramification >maturity . In a word,the data of pot experiment show that most of bioaccumulation in root . Thus, it is helpful to agricultural application of rare earths.     

Hybridisation within Brassica and allied genera: evaluation of potential for transgene escape

Determining the potential for hybridisation between transgenic crops and their relatives is a major component of risk assessment. Recent assessments of the extent of reproductive compatibility between crops and their relatives draw heavily on existing data from experimental crosses to infer the likelihood of hybridisation and introgression. Since the literature in this area continues to grow at a rapid pace, it is essential that such analyses can be easily updated. We used a database approach to assemble data on reproductive compatibility for eight crop species in Brassica, Raphanus and Sinapis, using data from hand pollination, spontaneous (unassisted) pollination and trials using in vitro techniques (e.g. embryo rescue), incorporating 326 studies and 216 species combinations. We found many reports for major crop species (B. juncea, B. napus, B. oleracea and B. rapa), but fewer for minor crops (B. carinata, B. nigra, Raphanus sativus and Sinapis alba). Many species combinations remain untested, and we highlight these information gaps. While reproductively incompatible species can be discounted as targets for transgene escape, compatible species must be evaluated further in the particular context where transgenic crops are grown. Because the data is retained in a database in a relatively unmodified form, multiple views of the data can be generated; this review represents one possible view of this data. Our approach also allows new data to be easily incorporated into future reanalyses and can be extended to other crop groups, and as such is a useful method of assembling, analysing and sharing data for risk assessment. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Herbicide-tolerant crops in agriculture: oilseed rape as a case study

Oilseed rape has been modified extensively by conventional breeding for the production of varieties useful for human consumption (blended vegetable oil and margarine) and industrial processes (rubber additives and high‐temperature lubricants). Because much is now known about its genetic and biochemical composition, it has been an obvious choice for genetic modification and is now at the forefront of the commercial development of genetically modified (GM) or transgenic crops. Around the world, the increase in commercial plantings of all transgenic crops has been rapid. In 1996, 1.7 million hectares were planted, but by 1998 this figure had jumped to 27.8 million ha. The area in the year 2001 is likely to be about 50 million ha. With the possible introduction of transgenic varieties into European agriculture, it is essential that the associated farming practices employed are appropriate for their growth, both from a commercial and an environmental viewpoint. Some of the first transgenic crops are those carrying agronomic traits, e.g. herbicide tolerance transgenes. However, before full commercialization occurs, important agronomic and environmental questions need to be answered. How are these new crops to be incorporated into existing cropping practices? How will this change the current herbicide use profile for a given crop? Do herbicide‐tolerant varieties enhance or impede integrated pest management schemes? What is the likely uptake of such crops in agriculture? What are the ecological implications of their introduction? Are there effective measures to control the spread of transgenes to wild relatives? This paper addresses these questions, with special emphasis on oilseed rape production in the UK, but includes examples from other crops and countries where appropriate.     

Breeding high-protein pigeonpea genotypes and their agronomic and biological assessments

Proteins, inevitable for nutritional security of human beings and legumes, by far, are the cheapest source of this vital nutrient. The escalating prices and never halting population growth limit the per capita availability of protein-rich legumes. In view of limited land resource and need to grow other food crops, the greater protein harvests are possible only by increasing the protein levels of popularly grown legumes. In this context, attempts were made for raising the protein content in pigeonpea [Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp.] through traditional plant breeding tools. For this, the high-protein trait was successfully transferred from wild relatives of pigeonpea to the cultivated types. In the derived inbred lines, the protein content was significantly enhanced from 20% - 22% to 28% - 30%. Two high-protein lines HPL 40 and HPL 8 also produced 2100 and 1660 kg/ha grain yield, respectively. This simply means that, in comparison with traditional cultivars, the cultivation of high-protein lines will provide additional 100 kg/ha of digestible protein to the farming family. This paper, besides describing the breeding procedures, also discusses the accomplishments of this breeding endeavour with respect to its various nutritional and biological properties.     

植物细胞质雄性不育基因的鉴定及育性调控机理

细胞质雄性不育（cytoplasmic male sterility,CMS）是作物杂交种生产的主要授粉控制系统,研究细胞质雄性不育分子基础及调控机理对利用杂种优势提高作物产量具有重要的指导意义。本文从植物的线粒体基因与细胞质雄性不育的关系着手,列举了植物CMS基因的鉴定情况,重点介绍了研究较多的矮牵牛、玉米、水稻和油菜细胞质雄性不育基因的鉴定进展及其对不育性状的调控。同时根据恢复基因与不育基因的相互作用情况阐述了育性恢复的可能机理,并对植物CMS分子机理的研究前景进行了展望。