Simulation of Cotton Production for Precision Farming

Most crop simulation models do not directly consider the spatial variability of inputs nor do they produce outputs that show the expected spatial variability of yield across a field. If such models were available for precision farming, then researchers could much better evaluate the effects of soil sampling densities to determine the number of samples necessary to adequately model a particular field. The objectives of this study were: (1) to design and implement a spatial simulation methodology for examining details of precision farming and (2) use this to evaluate the effects of different soil sampling resolutions on predicted yield and residual nitrates through spatially variable nitrogen applications. The GOSSYM/COMAX cotton growth model/expert system and the GRASS geographic information system were used to develop a spatial simulation that produces spatially variable outputs. Inputs to the model were collected from a 3.9-ha cotton field. Soil nitrate, a primary driver in fertilizer recommendations, was sampled on a 15.2-m regular grid for depths to 15 cm and on a 30.5-m regular grid at six 15-cm depth intervals (down to 90 cm). COMAX was used to determine spatially variable fertilizer recommendations. GOSSYM was used to simulate perfect application of these recommendations and predicted spatially variable yield and residual nitrates. Reductions in sampling density or resolution were simulated by systematically reducing the amount of data available to COMAX for calculating spatially variable fertilizer recommendations. GOSSYM subsequently used these recommendations (based upon less and less knowledge of soil nitrates) to simulate the effects of differing sampling resolutions on predicted yield and residual nitrates. For recommendations based upon a 15.2-m grid of inputs, 41.4 kg/ha of nitrate fertilizer produced 801.7 kg/ha of cotton and left an average of 9.4 ppm of nitrate in the soil profile. For a 30.5-m grid, 42.8 kg/ha of nitrate fertilizer resulted in a yield of 811.2 kg/ha and residual soil nitrate of 8.3 ppm. For 45.7-m and 61.0-m grids, the results were 43.3 kg/ha and 41.2 kg/ha of nitrate fertilizer, 755.3 kg/ha and 794.3 kg/ha of cotton, and 11.5 ppm and 8.1 ppm of residual soil nitrate, respectively. This study concluded that crop simulations and geographic information systems are a valuable combination for modeling the effects of precision farming and planning variable rate treatments. Simulation results indicate that excessive fertilization, while potentially damaging to the environment, may also have a negative impact on yield.     

基于光谱指数的冬小麦变量施肥冠层光谱特征研究及产量分析

 【目的】由适时获得的高光谱数据代替传统繁琐的实验室土壤养分测定数据来进行变量施肥，实现冬小麦高产优质的目标。【方法】本研究利用冬小麦起身期和拔节期冠层光谱数据，选用反映冬小麦长势信息的优化土壤调节植被指数（OSAVI，optimization of soil-adjusted vegetation index）和变量施肥模型进行变量施肥管理（变量区），以相邻地块常规非变量（均一）施肥区（对照区）为对照，研究了不同氮肥处理冬小麦冠层光谱特征及其施肥效应。【结果】变量施肥之后两种氮肥处理在敏感波段670 nm和760～900 nm处反射率差异明显，而670nm和760～900nm是氮素和冠层的敏感波段，说明进行变量施肥时，利用基于这两个波段组合的光谱指数OSAVI优于其它波段组合的光谱指数；SAVI不同生育时期的变化情况，反映了变量施肥在调控作物长势及群体结构上的优势；与对照区相比变量区提高产量达378.72 kg•ha-1，并降低了各小区产量之间的变异,变量区土壤硝态氮浓度降低，氮肥利用率提高，生态效益较为明显。【结论】该技术通过改善冬小麦群体质量，延缓了植株衰老，促进干物质和氮积累，增加冬小麦产量和氮肥利用率。     

未来气候条件下秸秆还田和氮肥种类对夏玉米产量及土壤氨挥发的影响

【目的】秸秆还田配施氮肥可以提高作物生产力,但在气候变化条件下,不同管理措施对夏玉米农田氮素利用存在很大的不确定性。明确在未来气候条件下秸秆还田与氮肥种类对夏玉米产量和土壤氨挥发的影响,以应对气候变化。【方法】利用DNDC模型预测未来不同情景下,秸秆还田和不同氮肥种类对关中地区夏玉米产量和土壤氨挥发的影响。通过田间土壤温度、水分、产量和土壤氨挥发累积量试验数据的验证,DNDC模型可以很好地模拟未来气候条件下不同处理的作物产量和土壤氨挥发累积量。【结果】模拟和实测结果均表明,在当前气候条件下秸秆还田会提高作物产量并促进土壤氨挥发,稳定性氮肥与普通尿素相比对产量无显著影响但会显著减少土壤氨挥发累积量。敏感性分析表明,作物产量与土壤氨挥发累积量均对施氮量最敏感。在RCP4.5排放情景下,单施稳定性氮肥（NF1）和单施尿素（NF2）分别在2050s—2090s和2070s—2090s产量显著降低,秸秆配施稳定性氮肥（SF1）和秸秆配施尿素（SF2）均在2050s—2090s产量显著升高;在RCP8.5排放情景下,单施稳定性氮肥（NF1）在2070s—2090s产量显著降低,单施尿素（NF2）产...     

水分-氮肥配合对油菜水分生产效率的影响

[目的]研究不同水氮条件对油菜(Brassica rapa L.)水分生产效率的影响,探索其合适的水肥供应水平。[方法]采用盆栽试验方法。设置4种水分处理和4种氮素水平。水分处理分别为50%θf、60%θf、70%θf、80%θf(θf代表土壤田间持水量,各设计水平为浇后灌水上限);施氮量分别为纯氮0、0.12、0.24和0.36 g/kg(土),肥料为尿素(含氮46.2%)。[结果]油菜水分生产效率与氮肥用量、灌水控制水平关系极为密切,且水肥交互效应明显。油菜水分生产效率随着氮肥用量的增加而增加,但超过某一氮肥用量后,则表现为下降的趋势;随灌水控制水平的变化亦表现出相同趋势。各水氮处理中,水分生产效率与油菜产量具有高度的协同性,水肥协调供应是高产和提高水分生产效率的重要措施。综合考虑,灌水水平控制在田间持水量的80%、施氮量为0.24 g/kg(土)的组合是最优的。[结论]该研究可为油菜的合理灌溉和施肥提供理论依据。     

不同土壤类型冬小麦-夏玉米轮作施肥效应

【目的】研究冬小麦-夏玉米轮作在不同类型土壤上的养分吸收特点及施肥增产效应,为因土施肥和资源高效利用提供依据。【方法】采用池栽试验,选用4种土壤(中壤潮土、砂壤潮土、砂姜黑土、黄褐土),设置3个施肥水平(不施肥、中量施肥、高量施肥),研究不同土壤的养分供应特点和施肥增产效应及肥料利用效率。【结果】在不施肥条件下,冬小麦、夏玉米的植株氮素、磷素、钾素积累量和产量在4种土壤上均表现为:中壤潮土砂姜黑土黄褐土砂壤潮土,表明不同土壤的养分供应能力和基础生产力差别较大。施肥显著增加了冬小麦、夏玉米植株的养分积累量和产量,周年植株氮素积累量增加37.7%—98.7%,磷素积累量增加23.6%—75.3%,钾素积累量增加29.3%—76.1%,周年作物增产26.5%—64.4%。冬小麦、夏玉米植株氮素、磷素、钾素积累的增加量和增产效果均表现为:砂壤潮土黄褐土砂姜黑土中壤潮土,整体表现出基础生产力较高的土壤,养分供应能力较强,施肥增产效应较小。冬小麦、夏玉米的肥料农学效率均表现为:砂壤潮土黄褐土砂姜黑土中壤潮土,即基础生产力较低的土壤,肥料的利用效率更高。高量施肥使砂壤潮土和黄褐土上冬小麦、夏玉米的植株养分积累量及产量显著增加,中壤潮土和砂姜黑土增加不显著。【结论】不同类型土壤的基础生产力不同,较高基础生产力的土壤养分供应能力较强,施肥增产效应较小,肥料利用效率较低;较低基础生产力土壤表达趋势相反。肥力较高的中壤潮土和砂姜黑土,应提高土壤养分的利用,降低肥料的施用量;肥力较低的砂壤潮土和黄褐土,应注意培肥地力,不断提高土壤的生产力。     

A flexible approach to managing variability in grain yield and nitrate leaching at within-field to farm scales

We up-scaled the APSIM simulation model of crop growth, water and nitrogen dynamics to interpret and respond to spatial and temporal variations in soil, season and crop performance and improve yield and decrease nitrate leaching. Grain yields, drainage below the maximum root depth and nitrate leaching are strongly governed by interaction of plant available soil water storage capacity (PAWC), seasonal rainfall and nitrogen supply in the water-limited Mediterranean-type environment of Western Australia (WA). APSIM simulates the interaction of these key system parameters and the robustness of its simulations has been rigorously tested with the results of several field experiments covering a range of soil types and seasonal conditions in WA. We used yield maps, soil and weather data for farms at two locations in WA to determine spatial and temporal patterns of grain yield, drainage below the maximum root depth and nitrate leaching under a range of weather, soil and nitrogen management scenarios. On one farm, we up-scaled APSIM simulations across the whole farm using local weather and fertiliser use data and the average PAWC values of soil type polygons. On a 70 ha field on another farm, we used a linear regression of apparent soil electrical conductivity (EC_a) measured by EM38 against PAWC to transform an EC_a map of the field into a high resolution (5 m grid) PAWC map. We then used regressions of simulated yields, drainage below the maximum root depth and nitrate leaching on PAWC to upscale the APSIM simulations for a range of weather and fertiliser management scenarios. This continuous mapping approach overcame the weakness of the soil polygons approach, which assumed uniformity in soil properties and processes within soil type polygons. It identified areas at greatest financial and environmental risks across the field, which required focused management and simulated their response to management interventions. Splitting nitrogen applications increased simulated wheat yields at all sites across the field and decreased nitrate leaching particularly where the water storage capacity of the soil was small. Low water storage capacity resulted in both low wheat yields and large leaching loss. Another management option to decrease leaching may be to grow perennial vegetation that uses more water and loses less by drainage.Paper from the 5th European Conference on Precision Agriculture (5ECPA), Uppsala, Sweden, 2005     

定州市土壤肥力演变规律与玉米推荐施肥量研究

本研究根据1986—1994年和2007—2010年河北省定州市土壤肥力监测数据,明确了该市土壤肥力演变规律;并通过"3414"田间试验,研究了不同肥力水平下土壤基础地力贡献率和养分贡献率,以及氮磷钾肥用量与玉米产量间的关系。结果表明:1986—1994年土壤有机质、碱解氮和速效磷呈上升趋势,速效钾呈下降趋势,而2007—2010年四种肥力指标均呈上升趋势;随时间延长,土壤基础地力和养分贡献率均下降;回归分析表明,不同土壤肥力水平下玉米产量与氮磷钾肥施用量间均呈显著的三元二次和一元二次曲线相关,结合这两种模型的拟合结果,提出了本市玉米最高产量施肥量和经济最佳产量施肥量推荐范围。     

A variable-rate decision support tool

Profitable precision or variable application of inputs depends on many factors; however, the inherent variability in a soil and or crop property and the relative responsiveness of yield to fertilizer inputs at different soil concentration levels are the most important factors in influencing economic gain. Generally, the greater is the spatial variation in the property influencing the input rate, the greater is the potential economic return from precision application compared to uniform application of an input. Based on a quantitative assessment of the spatial variation in soil properties that influence rates of input, a variable-rate decision support tool (VRDST) was developed to: (1) assess the potential profitability of variable-rate compared to uniform application and (2) identify the economic optimal uniform application rate if this is selected. The VRDST was evaluated using spatially distributed soil data from selected fields in North Carolina. Net return from variable-rate application and the economically optimal uniform rates are illustrated. Varying fertilizer cost, crop price and sampling costs greatly influenced net return from variable-rate application.     

不同施氮量对黄河上游地区设施芹菜产量及土壤中NO3- N残留的影响

针对宁夏灌区设施蔬菜生产中氮肥施用过量,造成土壤含盐量过高,土壤次生盐渍化加剧,进行土壤-芹菜系统的氮素单因子田间试验。结果表明,在一定范围内(0～30kg/667m2)增施氮肥,芹菜的维生素C含量提高,芹菜产量亦随施氮量增加而增加,而施氮水平高于30kg/667m2,维生素C含量会逐渐降低,产量也下降;施氮量为30kg/667m2时,芹菜维生素C含量、产量及植株氮素表观利用率均为最高;土壤硝态氮含量,一方面随着土层深度的增加,呈现显著下降的趋势;另一方面在同一土层内随着施氮量的增加,土壤中硝态氮含量逐渐增加。综合经济效益和生态效益,提出黄河上游地区设施芹菜氮素的优化目标供应值为30kg/667m2。     

减氮配施腐植酸对草甸黑土理化性质及玉米产量的影响

高强度利用导致草甸黑土肥力下降、质量不断退化.为探讨减氮配施腐植酸对土壤持水性能、保肥能力以及玉米产量的影响,设置草甸黑土田间试验,包括6个处理:不施肥(CK),常规施肥处理(N100H0),减施氮肥20％+5 t·hm-2腐植酸(N80H5),减施氮肥20％+10 t·hm-2腐植酸(N80H10),减施氮肥30％+...     

闽西竹林土壤物理性质的空间变异格局

采用地统计学与GIS分析方法,分析闽西永安市6个乡镇的毛竹林地的土壤含水量、土壤密度、最大持水量、最小持水量和土壤总孔隙度等6个物理性质的空间变异规律与分布格局。6个土壤物理指标变异系数介于0.12~0.30,均属中等变异;土壤含水量、最大持水量和毛管持水量最佳半方差函数模型均为球状模型,变程依次为3 970、4 360、4 710 m,土壤密度、最小持水量和毛管总孔隙度最佳半方差函数模型均为指数模型,变程分别为5 490、5 310、6 690 m,均大于1 000 m采样距离,且各指标随机性变异占总变异比例低于25%,分形维数趋近2,均呈现强空间相关性;除土壤密度呈各向同性且以0°方向(西—东)为优势格局外,其余5个指标呈各向异性且均以45°方向(西南—东北)为优势格局。土壤含水量与土壤密度的分布呈相反趋势,最大持水量、最小持水量和毛管总孔隙度分布格局相似,毛管持水量分布与研究区海拔密切相关,6个物理性质空间变异呈显著相关。     

有机质含量、地形坡度对土壤保水效果及作物产量的影响

以湖南省沅江市新湾村为供试地,选择不同土壤(不同有机质、不同地形)为研究对象,对土壤属性、土壤含水量和作物生长发育及产量、品质进行观测。结果表明,土壤含水量与土壤有机质丰缺、地形坡度密切相关:有机质丰富和地形坡度小的土壤,土质结构良好,使土壤容重下降,加快降水入渗,减少地表径流,增加土壤含水量,增强保水能力,相应地作物产量大幅度提高。建议平整土地和增施有机肥,保持水土,培肥地力,提高抗旱能力,增加作物单产,提高品质。     

水分亏缺下有机无机肥配施比例对棉花水氮利用效率的影响

【目的】探究不同水分条件下有机无机肥配施对棉花水氮利用效率和产量的影响,为河西走廊棉区合理利用有机肥提供理论依据。【方法】于2020—2021年进行田间定位试验,采用裂区试验设计,主区为充分灌溉（W1）和亏缺灌溉（W2）;副区为不施肥（CK）、单施化肥（CF）、25%有机肥+75%化肥（OF1）、50%有机肥+50%化肥（OF2）和75%有机肥+25%化肥（OF3）,分析不同水分条件下施肥对棉花生育期土壤含水量、阶段耗水量、干物质和氮素积累及转运分配、水氮利用效率、籽棉产量和经济效益的影响。【结果】棉花籽棉产量和水氮利用特征受不同水肥处理及交互作用的显著影响。亏缺灌溉下棉田土壤含水量、总耗水量、植株干物质积累量、氮素积累量和籽棉产量显著下降,而水分利用效率显著提高。适宜的有机无机肥配施处理能够提高0—40 cm土层土壤含水量,降低棉花苗期和蕾期耗水,增加花铃期耗水量,提高棉花干物质和氮素积累量,并促进其向生殖器官中分配。充分灌溉条件下,25%有机肥配施处理（OF1）籽棉产量最高,两年平均较单施化肥（CF）提高10.5%;50%有机肥配施处理（OF2）与单施化肥（CF）无显著差异,但75...     

黑龙江省境内黑土带地区化肥施用量的时空异质性

从空间和时间双重维度对黑龙江省境内黑土带地区化肥施用量的成因、趋势进行分析,利用非平稳时间序列加法模型对黑龙江省境内黑土带地区的化肥施用量进行预测。结果表明:在空间上,施肥量是由要素投入、经济发展水平、农作物播种面积、农作物产量、教育发展水平等多重因素综合导致的;在时间上,施肥量仍将逐年增加,到2020年黑龙江省境内黑土带涵盖的21市、县的化肥平均施用量为50 645.05 t。     

Maize Nitrogen Response as Affected by Soil Type and Drainage Variability

Site-specific application of nitrogen (N) to maize (Zea mays L.) may provide economic and environmental benefits. Variations in soil drainage and texture within fields are often believed to cause localized differences in soil N availability and therefore are a potential basis for site-specific N fertilizer application. The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of imposed variations in drainage conditions in two soils on early season soil water conditions, soil nitrate levels, and crop response to N fertilizer. Maize was grown for three years following conversion from sod. Two soil drainage regimes and three N rates (22, 100 and 134 kg ha^–1) were experimentally imposed on plots on two soil types, a clay loam and a loamy sand. Soil water potential and soil nitrate content were intensively monitored for the 0–150 and 150–300 mm soil layers during the early growing season. Early season soil water potentials showed small effects of drainage variability at the 75 and 225 mm depths. However, the clay loam soil experienced prolonged periods of saturation after significant precipitation, while the loamy sand never experienced such conditions. Soil nitrate levels were strongly affected by cropping history, but were also subjected to losses as a result of precipitation and short-term soil saturation. Maize N response was minimally affected by differences in soil drainage conditions in all 3 years. In years with a wet spring, justification exists for higher N fertilizer rates on finer-textured soils. This study therefore showed only moderate potential for varying N application within fields based on soil type and drainage conditions, but suggests that seasonal differences in N dynamics greatly affect maize N response.     

有机肥配施对中国农田土壤容重影响的整合分析

有机肥配施是我国化肥减施的重要手段之一,探究化学氮肥减施并配施有机肥对不同土壤利用类型、土壤质地及有机肥类型下土壤容重的影响程度,对于深刻认识农田土壤物理状况具有重要意义。本研究通过整合2000年1月1日至2020年5月31日期间已公开发表的文献数据,建立了包含320组相对独立数据的数据库。利用Meta-analysis定量分析不同土壤利用类型、土壤质地、有机肥类型、有机肥施用量、施用频次和施用年限等分类条件下化学氮肥减施并配施有机肥对土壤容重的影响。结果表明,与常规化学氮肥施用相比,配施有机肥显著降低了土壤容重,平均降幅为4.53%。不同土壤利用类型下,有机肥配施显著降低了果园土壤容重,降幅为9.06%,显著高于水田（3.72%）和旱地（5.25%）土壤容重的降幅。不同土壤质地下,有机肥配施使砂土土壤容重下降6.96%,显著高于壤土和黏土容重的降幅。不同有机肥类型之间,生物肥料对土壤容重的影响最大,土壤容重降幅为5.70%,生物炭的影响次之,其土壤容重的降幅为5.21%,二者对土壤容重的影响显著大于动物粪肥和作物秸秆（土壤容重降幅分别为3.67%和2.30%）。此外,土壤容重的下降幅度随有机肥施用量和施用年限、施用频次的增加而呈现增大趋势。本研究为评估我国化学氮肥减施对土壤容重的影响提供了数据基础。     

相同气候背景下南北方稻田土壤上水稻生长及氮响应差异研究

【目的】土壤是影响作物产量和氮肥吸收利用的因素之一,深入研究南北方稻田土壤对水稻生长及氮效率的影响,以期为调控区域水稻高产优质提供参考。【方法】2018—2019年,以黑龙江省黑土型水稻土,江苏省乌栅土型水稻土为试验材料,在黑龙江省哈尔滨市进行水稻盆栽试验。每种土壤设置3个施氮水平,即N0：不施氮肥;N1：0.87 g N/pot（相当于150 kg N·hm^-2）;N2：1.74 g N/pot（相当于300 kg N·hm^-2）。测定水稻分蘖、SPAD值、分蘖成穗率、土壤矿化氮量、水稻产量和氮效率。【结果】黑土型水稻土的早期分蘖对施氮有响应,分蘖数随施氮量增加而增加,而乌栅土型水稻土的分蘖在拔节期后才对施氮有响应。土壤对水稻分蘖的影响存在年际间差异,2018年土壤类型对分蘖数有显著影响,不施氮时乌栅土型水稻土的分蘖数比黑土型水稻土高4.41%—43.04%,而施氮后乌栅土型水稻土比黑土型水稻土的分蘖数低8.25%—12.98%;2019年黑土型水稻土的分蘖数多数高于乌栅土型水稻土4.41%—46.53%。两种水稻土的分蘖成穗率与叶片SPAD值在2018年有显著差异,乌栅土型水稻土的叶片SPAD值比黑土型水稻土高19.28%—21.19%,乌栅土型水稻土的分蘖成穗率比黑土型水稻土高23.89%—40.53%,2019年土壤类型对水稻分蘖成穗率与叶片SPAD值均无显著影响。28 d淹水培养试验表明,两种土壤的无机氮总量基本相同,乌栅土型水稻土的初始矿化速率比黑土型水稻土高,但后期矿化速率比黑土型水稻土低,黑土型水稻土的矿化势更高,有更大的矿化潜力。黑土型水稻土的AE_N（氮肥农学效率）比乌栅土型水稻土高,而乌栅土型水稻土的PFP_N（氮肥偏生产力）比黑土型水稻土高,乌栅土型水稻土的Y₀/Nr（Y₀为无肥区产量,Nr为施氮量）更高,供氮与施氮更加协调。2018年黑土型水稻土的RE_N（氮肥吸收利用率）和PE_N（氮肥生理利用率）均显著高于乌栅土型水稻土,2019年土壤类型对RE_N和PE_N无显著影响。【结论】土壤差异不是南北方稻田氮效率差异的决定性因素,氮效率差异是土壤、气候和品种等因素共同作用的结果。相对于黑土型水稻土而言,前期养分供应能力强的乌栅土型水稻土应减施基、蘖肥,适当增施穗肥,以保证后期供氮促进水稻高产。     

土壤水分对包膜尿素氮素溶出特性影响的研究

研究土壤水分对自行研制的包膜尿素(BG、BF)氮素溶出特性的影响.采用室内恒温土壤培养方式,探讨土壤水分为田间持水量的10％、40％、80％和100％条件下包膜尿素氮素溶出特性.结果表明:土壤水分为田间持水量的40％以下时,BG和BF在各培养时期内的氮素溶出率都比较低,在培养第42天氮素溶出率仅为66.3％和68.4％,土壤水分在田间持水量的80％以上时,溶出率均达到了80％以上;土壤水分在田间持水量40％、80％和100％条件下,氮素溶出50％所需要的天数,BG型包膜尿素比BF型延长了4.6d 、0.2d和0.9d;氮素溶出特性可以用一级反应动力学方程N1=N0[1-exp(-kt)]描述,k为氮素溶出速率常数,包膜尿素BG的k值小于BF.土壤水分对包膜尿素氮素溶出率影响较大,随着土壤含水量的增加,氮素溶出率增大;硅藻土作为包膜材料对养分的缓释效果要好于沸石粉.     

适用于半干旱条件微水溶性胶结包膜缓释肥的研制及评价Ⅰ.性能测试与氮素溶出规律

采用性能测试、砂柱淋洗、模拟降雨及不同田间持水量下室内土壤培养试验,研究了适用于半干旱条件的微水溶性胶结包膜缓释肥料的材料性质及氮素溶出规律.结果表明,微水溶性包膜材料致密,透水率为27.52g/(m2.h),且具有一定的生物降解性能.与普通尿素相比,微水溶性胶结包膜缓释肥料具有明显的缓释作用,8.5%田间持水量为氮素溶出下限,随降雨或灌水可缓慢释放出一定的氮素,微水溶性效果已初步体现.     

Managing Uncertainty in Site-Specific Management: What is the Best Model?

Models which enable the representation of spatially variable crop performance are central to site-specific management. Rarely have these models been considered in relation to the different sources of uncertainty facing the decision maker. This paper describes various sources of uncertainty (temporal, metrical, structural, and translational) in the context of the site-specific management problem and the model types proposed to solve the problem. An example involving the site specific application of nitrogen fertilizer in dryland wheat production is presented to show how these model types might be evaluated for suitability to a given situation. We conclude that in data poor situations, knowledge-driven models may be less accurate but preferred by the farmer, while in data rich situations data-driven models may be more appropriate.