Quantitative and financial evaluation of non-timber forest products (case study: Zemkan basin forests,West of Iran)

Although Zagros forests in western Iran lack industrial timber value due to the severe climate and socioeconomics problems, non-timber products are of great value and importance due to their high economic potential and also their potential to improve the welfare of forest-dwelling and forest-fringe villagers. This study was done in the forests of the Zemkan basin, an important part of central Zagros forests, Iran, to recognize the non-timber forest products (NTFP_S), investigate their potential economic value and role in people’s livelihood. Data, collected using forest cruising, participatory observations, interviews with indigenous and local persons and experts, identified wild pistachio resin, wild pistachio fruit, oak fruit and oak syrup (Shokeh manna) among the non-timber products in this basin with total potential harvestable NTFPs of 77.16, 771.602, 13248.68, and 1324.868 tons per year, respectively. The economic rent from NTFPs is 33 US$/ha/year and its total expected values with consideration of real interest rate when the exploiter invests the capital in the bank (6.4 %) and when money is borrowed from the bank to execute the incorporated projects (8.4 %) are $516/ha and $393/ha, respectively. Furthermore, families’ economic share from potential profit of NTFPs is annually $601 per household. In addition wild pistachio resin has the highest share of the total potential profit of NTFPs and its equal to 51 % of the total of potential profit of NTFPs. Therefore, it is suggested that decisions be made to increase the infrastructure and strengthen the local selling market to enhance the cash income from NTFPs. Forest participatory management practices are suggested to organize and improve traditional use of the forests.     

The role of non-timber forest products during agroecosystem shift in Xishuangbanna,southwestern China

There are few observations on the role of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in shifting from subsistence to commercial plantation-dominated systems with long-term monitoring, despite interests in NTFPs for sustainable development and livelihood dependence. During 1998–2004, we conducted an annual survey of households in the two villages, Baka and Daka, which represent different stages in the shift from a subsistence agroecosystem to a rubber plantation-dominated system in Xishuangbanna, southwestern China. Significant negative correlations were observed between gross income and dependence on NTFPs-generated income in both Baka and Daka villages (P = 0.029 in Baka and P = 0.028 in Daka), which is supporting evidence that poorer households derive greater benefits from NTFPs than do wealthy households. When the rubber price dropped during 1998–2001, the NTFPs income of Baka increased greatly from US$59.10 to US$145 per household, or from 6.4% to 26.6% of household gross income. In contrast, in Daka village, NTFPs income increased by insignificant amounts of US$1.6 per household in 1998 to US$23.8 in 2001, but this was compensated by an increase in income from off-farm work of US$11 to US$147 (an increase from 1.8% to 16.2% of gross income per household) from 1998 to 2001 in Daka. NTFPs retained important roles both in alleviating risk associated with monoculture price fluctuations and in generating income for relatively poor people.     

Non-timber forest products and household incomes in Bonga forest area,southwestern Ethiopia

We identified the major non-timber forest products （NTFPs）, their contributions to household incomes, and the determinants influenc-ing engagement of households in using NTFPs in the Bonga forest area of Gimbo and Decha Districts of Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. Six Kebeles （the lowest administrative unit in Ethiopia） were sampled from two Districts and 150 households were randomly sampled using propor-tional-to-size techniques based on the number of farm households in each Kebele. Secondary data were collected from and focus group discussions were conducted with selected individuals. The farmers diversified liveli-hood activities such as crop and livestock production, collection of NTFPs and off-farm activities. NTFPs played a significant role in household incomes. The contribution from the major NTFPs （forest coffee, honey and spices） accounted for 47% of annual household in-come. The role of NTFPs was influenced by a number of factors. Vari-ables including being native to the area （＋）, total land holding （＋）, pos-session of livestock （＋） and access to extension （＋） significantly affected forest coffee production. Age of household head （-）, land holding （＋） and distance of the market from the residence （-） significantly affected honey production. Size of landholding （＋）, distance to market （-） and distance of the forest from the residence （-） were significant variables determining the NTFP incomes derived by the households. Attention is needed in the design of policies and strategies for the well-being of households to the contribution of NTFPs to local incomes and the variables that affect the collection of NTFPs must be considered.     

NTFP income contribution to household economy and related socio-economic factors: Lessons from Bangladesh

Exploring extent and pattern of non-timber forest product (NTFP) income contribution to livelihoods of forest-adjacent people and the income related socio-economic factors is crucial in designing any development and conservation initiative. This paper examines NTFPs' role in contributing to the household economy and how different socio-economic factors may influence this contribution. Field methods involved quantitative and qualitative data collection of forest-adjacent households of Chittagong Hill Tracts in Bangladesh. Results show that the contribution of different types of NTFPs to household economy varies in terms of subsistence and cash income. However, overall NTFP income is much higher than income from timber or firewood which indicates a larger dependence of the households on NTFPs. Income data analysis also finds that the poor households are relatively more dependent on NTFPs for their subsistence and cash income than the better-off households. Moreover, the study reveals that there are many other socio-economic factors at the household level such as number of members in household and total value of household implements and furniture that are significantly correlated with the NTFP income. More site-specific applied research on NTFP income and influential factors is necessary to generalize the findings for other parts of the world with similar socio-economic and environmental settings.     

Contribution of NTFPs to cash income of the War Khasi community of southern Meghalaya, North-East India

Ever since their emergence on this planet,human beings have depended on forest resources for their requirements,ranging from food,fuel to shelter.Sustainable extraction of forest resources has been promoted by conservationists and development agencies as a feasible strategy for forest dwellers,which does not diminish the resource base.Yet surveys of actual resource use suggest that for poorer resource-dependent communities without access to markets,non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can only act as a safetynet and a supplementary income source.In southern Meghalaya of India,NTFPs and medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) have become an important source of cash and subsistence income for poor people living in or near forests.People in this region have traditionally been collecting different forest products from private forests as well as community conserved forests.The study reveals that NTFPs contribute significantly towards the annual cash income of the local population.The contribution of NTFPs to their income was highest in the case of poor families (9.89%),followed by middle income families (3.34%) and the least for the higher income families (1.34%).Our household survey revealed that 100% of the population is directly or indirectly dependent on NTFPs.Household response indicates diversity in both the types and uses of products collected.     

Determinants of engagement in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) business activities: A study on worker households in the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains,northeastern China

This study used data of 128 worker households that possessed woodland resources and owned by seven forestry bureaus (counties) belonging to the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains to analyze the behavioral characteristics of worker households that engaged in non-timber forest products (NTFPs) business activities. A logistic regression model was utilized to analyze factors that influenced worker households to engage in NTFPs business activities. The study found the following: NTFPs collection activities had become the primary NTFPs business activity engaged in by the worker households in the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains because of the relatively small investment needed as well as fewer production and operating risks. The engagement of worker households in the forest areas of Daxinganling and Xiaoxinganling Mountains in NTFPs business activities was still in a preliminary stage. Whether or not worker households engaged in NTFPs business activities was not affected by household head or household manpower characteristics; rather, worker households were more willing to engage in NTFPs business activities when the households had bank deposits, homes were close to the woodlands, the woodlands had good quality soil, and the households received social services.     

Integration of Biodiversity Conservation in Tropical Forest and Economic Development of Local Communities

Abstract

Quantification of economic contribution of all forest products is a primary requirement for the integration of biodiversity conservation and economic development of local communities. A methodology for quantification of the contribution of all non-timber forest products (NTFPs) is suggested, and applied to a minuscule sample of seven villages in India for illustrative purposes. A comparative analysis of such contributions of NTFPs in two major types of forest cover, Teak (Tectona grandis) and Sal (Shorea robusta) has been made. The role of NTFPs has been evaluated in terms of three measures of economic development: (i) share in household income, (ii) income distribution, and (iii) mitigation of uncertainties of agricultural income stream due to random fluctuations in weather conditions. A basic strategy for the integration of biodiversity conservation and economic development of local communities, based on socio-economic conditions of the community and silvicultural requirements of the forest resources, is suggested.     

Socio-economic factors influencing marketing of non-timber forest products in tropical lowland rainforests of south-western Nigeria§

A number of factors persist to constrain the non-timber forest products (NTFPs) market and, by extension, its potential to contribute meaningfully to livelihood development and poverty reduction objectives. To better utilise the potential of NTFPs, it is important to have a better understanding of the key factors governing the success and failure of NTFPs trade. This paper reports on the market constraints and socio-economic factors that influence trade in five top-priority NTFPs within the tropical lowland rainforests of south-west Nigeria. The NTFPs investigated were bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis), African walnut (Plukenetia conophora), chew-stick (Massularia acuminata), fever bark (Annickia chlorantha) and bush pepper (Piper guineense). Field data were collected in 10 villages located within and around Omo and Shasha forest reserves using a household questionnaire survey. The results showed that seasonality, poor transport, lack of storage facilities and market information were the four main constraints influencing marketing and trade in the NTFPs. In addition, the level of education, gender (sex), household income, ethnicity, distance to the market and access to roads significantly influenced market knowledge and information among households involved in the trade of NTFPs. There is need to improve on the limited source of NTFPs information, enhance skills for product transformation, build innovative storage facilities, and develop the process of domestication and integration in traditional land-use systems.     

Livelihood Strategies and Forest Product Utilisation of Rural Households in Nepal

Most Nepalese rural households adopt diversified strategies of income generation and use products directly collected from forests. To analyse the influence of livelihood strategy on forest product utilisation, a survey of 336 rural households in lowland Nepal was conducted. Four livelihood strategies were identified by means of a Principal Component Analysis based on income variables, followed by hierarchical cluster analysis. Two livelihood strategies are assigned to on-farm activities and two to off-farm activities. The off-farm based strategies were found to result in higher household incomes. To test for differences across the livelihood strategies, additional socio-demographic variables, physical assets and location information have been analysed using ANOVA. The forest product utilisation behaviour of the households differs significantly between livelihood strategies. The households adopting a subsistence-based strategy collect the most forest products while achieving the lowest total income. However, a general influence of the total household income on the forest utilisation intensity is not confirmed. Households receiving remittances from abroad achieve the highest incomes but still collect forest products. The group of most forest-dependent households is mainly characterised by living near the forest and far from city centres with commodity and labour markets, and by having low education and a young head of household. The households relying mainly on private business income have the lowest forest product utilisation and are characterised by the highest education, proximity to markets and greatest area of agricultural land.     

Forest utilization patterns and socio-economic status of the Van Gujjar tribe in sub-Himalayan tracts of Uttarakhand, India

The present study was conducted on the Van Gujjar tribe inhabiting a sub-Himalayan tract in the North Western Himalayas of Uttarakhand State,India.The Van Gujjars have been practicing transmigration over hundreds of years.They migrate each year with their households and livestock between summer and winter pastures.A few years ago with the announcement of the establishment of the Rajaji National Park,the tribe has been forced out of the forest area and rehabilitated outside the park,which has affected their lifestyle.The newly established rehabilitation colony in the Gandikhata area of Haridwar District of Uttarakhand State was taken as a case study.The aims of the present study were to understand and evaluate the socio-economic status of the Van Gujjars in their newly established rehabilitation colony,the utilization pattern of forest resources by the tribe and their relative preference for selective trees for various uses.A total of 176 households were interviewed (giving equal weight to all economic classes and family every size) by using pre-structured questionnaires.The education level was very low (12.9%) and the average income per household was recorded as Rs.36000 (approximately $ 803) per year.The major source of income was dairy production (80.6%) followed by labor employment (13.9%),NTFPs (4.2%) and agricultural production (1.4%).More than 90% of fuel wood and fodder is extracted from the forest.The average fuel wood and fodder consumptions per household per day were recorded as 25.86 and 21.58 kg,respectively.A total of 35 species of cultivated plants and 89 species of wild plants were found to be utilized as food sources.Selectively 25 wild tree species are well known as being used by the Van Gujjars as fodder,fuel wood,agricultural implements,household articles,dye,medicine,fiber and other products.According to their utility value,the most preferred and useful tree species is Ougeinia oojeinensis,followed by Terminalia alata,Bombax ceiba,Shorea robusta and Dalbergia sissoo.     

NTFPs and Their Commercialization Issues from the Perspective of Rural Livelihood and the State of Forest Resources: A Study of the Ranibundh Forest Range in West Bengal,India

Forests provide a source of livelihood to all classes of rural people, especially in tribal dominated areas. With the advent of joint forest management concepts and commercial earning prospects from non-timber forest products (NTFPs), it was expected that forests would be best preserved by the villagers who depend on them for a substantial part of their livelihoods. However, in the case of the Ranibundh block in the Bankura district, it was observed that the predominance of private agencies in marketing channels of NTFPs, together with risk of eviction, loss of customary right to access forest resources, low employment prospects, and lack of training about proper management of NTFPs have led to the failure in motivating the forest dwellers to prevent degradation of forest resources. It is suggested that government agencies, producer institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and other strong institutional entities can promote forest preservation when complemented by the granting of forest rights to rural people, the extension of training facilities, and alternative employment prospects.     

Economic dependence on mangrove forest resources for livelihoods in the Sundarbans,Bangladesh

This study examines the importance of mangrove resources to the livelihoods of people living beside the world's largest contiguous mangrove forest. Median annual household income was USD 1122, based on household survey data from 264 households in six villages adjacent to the Sundarbans, in Khulna, Bangladesh. Forest income represented 74% and 48% of the total household income for the lower and middle income households respectively, but just 23% for higher income households. Although higher income households derived a larger absolute income from forest resources than the lower income households, the addition of forest income to household income reduces measured income inequality by 27% suggesting that forests offer a more egalitarian source of income than most other sources at the study sites. Thus reducing forest income as a result of reduced access to forest resources would greatly affect the livelihood outcomes for the rural poor and increase wealth discrepancies among households near the forest margins.     

Consumption Patterns of Fuelwood in Rural Households of Dolakha District,Nepal: Reflections from Community Forest User Groups

Biomass plays a vital role in the energy supply of many developing countries. It is the major energy source for the rural population of Nepal, where 70 % of the total energy is derived from woody plant biomass in the form of fuelwood. The main aim of this study is to describe the fuelwood consumption pattern and the role of community forests and trees on private farmland in biomass supply to rural households in Nepal. The study investigates whether demography and socioeconomic attributes of households affect fuelwood consumption. A household survey was conducted, along with measurements of fuelwood mass for six community forest user groups in Dolakha district of Nepal. Average daily household fuelwood consumption was estimated to be 8.4 kg, giving a mean annual consumption of 3060 kg per household. Per capita fuelwood consumption per day was found to be 1.7 kg. Total fuelwood consumption of households is significantly correlated with household size, ownership of cultivated irrigated terraces and number of livestock per household, and negatively significantly correlated with ownership of cultivated rain-fed terraces. Fuelwood consumption varies significantly between seasons. Among various sources of biomass energy, fuelwood from community forests contributes 23 % and trees on private farmland contribute 12 %. The rest is provided from other biomass sources, including the remains of fodder collected from private farmland vegetation, wood previously used for fences and trellises in private farmland, crop residues, and purchased fuelwood.     

自然保护区森林旅游对农户收入分配结构的影响——以我国5个国家级自然保护区周边社区474户农户为例

在自然保护区发展森林旅游为社区提供了一种更具可持续性的生计方式,改变了农户传统的收入组合模式,不仅带来收入和支出整体增加,也使传统的单一生计方式趋于多样化,但是也在一定程度上影响了农户的收入分配结构,可能带来农户收入分配不平等现象。文中以高黎贡山等5个国家级自然保护区及周边社区为研究区域,拟合洛伦兹曲线并计算基尼系数,分析在自然保护区开展森林旅游背景下农户收入分配结构的变化。研究结果显示:森林旅游为农户收入带来显著提高,森林旅游收入已经成为经营农户的主要家庭收入;经营农户收入分配差距大,非经营农户收入分配差距小,森林旅游在一定程度上加大了农户之间的收入分配不平等。     

Contribution of Indian Gooseberry (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phyllanthus emblica</Emphasis>) to Household Economy in Sri Lanka: A Case Study from Udadumbara Divisional Secretariat

Indian gooseberry, one of the most popular medicinal fruit crops in South and Southeast Asia, has become an important source of income for rural forest dwellers in Sri Lanka. However, very little is known about the role of Indian gooseberry in household economies and its contribution to the local and national economies. To address this issue, we conducted a study in Udadumbara Divisional Secretariat, Sri Lanka to estimate the economic contribution of Indian gooseberry to household incomes and to quantify its dependency level among households with different socio-economic characteristics. The data were collected from 117 households through interviews using semi-structured questionnaires. The results show that Indian gooseberry contributes on average 10.1% of the total household income, which is the third largest share after off-farm income (53.1%) and agricultural income (35.1%). The contribution of Indian gooseberry to the household income increases as other sources of income decrease which results in higher contributions for lower income households (16.4%) and lower contributions for higher income households (2.1%). Indian gooseberry income is significantly and negatively correlated with the agricultural land owned by households and water availability for agriculture and is positively correlated with the time spent for collection. Our results also found that if there is access to other sources of income and higher levels of education, the collectors’ dependences on Indian gooseberry are decreased. Moreover, the study found that Indian gooseberry trees are under a threatened and declining due to the reduction of forest cover and inappropriate management system. Therefore, collaborative management system through partnerships among rural community and the Forest Department is suggested.     

Forest use and agriculture in Ucayali,Peru: Livelihood strategies,poverty and wealth in an Amazon frontier

The relevance of forests to rural well-being and poverty reduction remains a controversial issue. This paper examines patterns of association between household wealth, poverty, and livelihood dependency either on forest extraction or agricultural activities in Ucayali, Peru. The analysis is based on survey data of 578 households with geographical, ethnic and environmental heterogeneity. A typology of economic strategies was defined through relative income shares derived from agriculture, forest, wages and other income sources. Our results show that households have multifaceted livelihood systems. While forest/environmental products provide nearly 40% of total income, agriculture is critical to both indigenous communities and to farmers of non-Amazonian origin. We test the hypothesis that households relying on agriculture are wealthier than forest-dependent households. In addition, we examine the role played by ethnicity and location as interacting variables. The analysis suggests a strong role of specific ethnic and locational configurations in shaping income and asset patterns, with some weak evidence of statistically lower poverty levels being credited to dependency on forest products. Context-specific assessments of livelihood–environment interactions provide critical insights to development and environmental policies and programs, which need to recognize different forms through which households integrate forest use and agriculture.     

我国重点国有林区改革对职工家庭间收入不平等的影响

利用我国3个重点国有林区24个林业局1 454户职工家庭微观调查数据,通过极大似然估计法和最小二乘法估计国有林区各项改革对职工家庭间收入不平等的影响。研究发现,国有林区职工家庭间不平等程度不断加剧,而在国有林区推行的各项改革对不平等的加剧有显著影响。其中,市场化手段组织林业生产这项改革实施时间每增加1年,林业局职工家庭间收入差距就增加8元;参与森林资源承包管护改革户数的比例每增加1个百分点,林业局职工家庭间收入差距增加13元;加工企业转制比例每增加1个百分点,林业局职工家庭间收入差距增加2元;一次性安置富余职工也显著提高了林业局职工家庭间收入差距,但养老负担显著降低了职工家庭间收入差距。因此,在推行以改进效率为目标取向的市场化改革过程中,政府需要出台相应的配套政策,尤其是要扶持和帮助林区贫困弱势群体,以避免不平等程度加剧。