南京地区4株猪源耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌多位点序列分型

应用多位点序列分型技术,研究4株猪源耐甲氧西林金黄色葡萄球菌(Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus,MRSA)临床株的来源和遗传背景,了解其耐药状况、分子分型及遗传学特点。受检菌株31株,用PCR扩增mecA基因鉴定猪源MRSA;用K-B法对4株猪源MRSA进行抗生素耐药性检测;应用多位点测序分型(Multilocus Sequencing Typing,MLST)方法进行ST分型比较。结果:PCR法检出率为12.9%(4/31),检出的4株猪源MRSA均表现为多重耐药,同时对氨苄西林、头孢噻肟、庆大霉素、氯霉素、克林霉素和环丙沙星完全耐药。MLST分型显示4株猪源MRSA以ST9型为主(3/4),等位基因谱为3-3-1-1-1-1-10,1株等位基因谱为10-35-129-2-7-50,属新ST型。研究表明4株猪源MRSA呈多重耐药模式,这初步反映了抗生素在临床上广泛且不合理的应用。MLST作为一种可靠的分型方法为猪源MRSA的分型研究提供信息,对研究猪源MRSA的遗传背景和防治具有重要意义。     

奶牛临床型乳房炎MRSA新疆流行株耐药基因的检测及MLST分型研究

为了解新疆地区奶牛临床型乳房炎MRSA流行株耐药表型、耐药基因分布及分子分型特征,采用纸片扩散法检测了临床分离的71株金黄色葡萄球菌的耐药表型,并对MRSA进行判定;应用多重PCR方法对MRSA流行株进行耐药基因的检测及MLST分型。结果显示,71株金黄色葡萄球菌中共检出13株MRSA,检出率为18.3%。13株MRSA流行株均检出mecA和linA耐药基因,检出率为100.0%;7株检出tetm耐药基因,检出率为53.8%;4株检出msrB耐药基因,检出率为30.8%;4株检出AacA-Da耐药基因,检出率为30.8%;MLST分型结果发现,13株MRSA可分为6种ST型,分别为ST188、ST9、ST63、ST2700、ST968、ST2373,其中ST9型流行较为广泛。本研究为新疆地区奶牛MRSA流行株的耐药特性及分子特征提供了理论基础,为兽医临床合理用药提供了科学依据。     

鸡蛋壳蜡样芽孢杆菌的分离鉴定及耐药性分析

【目的】 分析不同环境下鸡蛋外壳携带蜡样芽孢杆菌的情况和分离菌株的基本特征。【方法】 从养殖场和超市各采集9种新鲜鸡蛋,对鸡蛋表面携带的蜡样芽孢杆菌进行分离鉴定、基因分型、毒力基因筛查和耐药性分析。采用基质辅助激光解吸电离飞行时间质谱（MALDI-TOF MS）技术对分离菌株进行初步鉴定,全基因组测序后进行菌种鉴定并确定基因分型、筛选毒力基因和耐药基因,同时采用微量肉汤稀释法测定分离株对头孢曲松、红霉素、万古霉素等12种抗菌药物的耐药性。【结果】 经MALDI-TOF MS初步鉴定和基因组菌种鉴定,确定从养殖场3种未经清洁加工的鲜蛋中分离出的6个菌株为蜡样芽孢杆菌,其序列分型（ST）较为多样,其中有2株新的ST型。在毒力基因筛查方面,6株蜡样芽孢杆菌均检出了非溶血型肠毒素nheB基因、腹泻型毒力因子hlyⅡ基因和侵袭免疫系统的inhA基因;nheA和nheC基因携带率为83.3%,编码溶血型肠毒素HBL的hblA、hblC和hblD基因携带率均为66.7%;cytK和hlyⅢ基因携带率分别为33.3%和50.0%;肠毒素基因BceT、entFM和致吐毒素基因ces均未检出。耐药性方面,6株菌均对庆大霉素、四环素、氯霉素、利福平、利奈唑胺和环丙沙星敏感,对氨苄西林、头孢曲松和泰妙菌素耐药;对红霉素、克林霉素的中介率分别为83.3%和100%;33.3%的菌株对万古霉素耐药。6株菌均携带有磷霉素耐药基因FosB和万古霉素耐药基因簇vanA的部分基因vanRSYZ,其中5株菌携带大环内酯类药物耐药基因mphL,部分菌株携带β-内酰胺类药物耐药基因或核苷类药物耐药基因。【结论】 本试验从养殖场未经消毒处理的鸡蛋外壳上成功分离到了蜡样芽孢杆菌,并发现其携带有多种毒力基因,存在多重耐药性,有潜在致病性和公共安全风险。     

奶牛源金黄色葡萄球菌新疆流行株的耐药特性、毒力基因及分子分型

旨在了解引起奶牛乳房炎和子宫内膜炎的金黄色葡萄球菌(SA)新疆流行株的耐药性、毒力基因及其分子流行病学特征。对2014—2016年新疆地区155株SA奶牛临床分离株的耐药表型进行分析,并对耐甲氧西林SA(MRSA)进行鉴定;通过PCR技术对SA的耐药基因、毒力基因进行检测及SCCmec、MLST分子分型。结果在155株SA中检出22株MRSA,检出率为14.2%;MRSA流行株的耐药性明显高于甲氧西林敏感SA(MSSA);不同的毒力基因在MSSA和MRSA中的检出率有所差异;SCCmecⅠ为新疆地区SA主要基因型;MLST分型共检出14种ST型,分别为ST188、ST584、ST9、ST805、ST2373、ST968、ST2139、ST1、ST2700、ST903、ST2454、ST2990、ST63、STX,其中ST1和ST9检出率相对较高,在MSSA菌株中ST9型的检出率最高,MRSA菌株中ST1检出率最高。研究表明,新疆地区奶牛源SA中主要流行株为MSSA,但MRSA耐药性更强,且毒力基因分布多样,ST9为MSSA流行株的主要基因型,ST1-SCCmecⅠ为MRSA流行株的主要基因型。     

牛源金黄色葡萄球菌耐药性及甲氧西林敏感和耐甲氧西林菌株演化相关性研究

为研究牛源金黄色葡萄球菌耐药性以及甲氧西林敏感(MSSA)和耐甲氧西林(MRSA)菌携带的耐药基因、MRSA的SCCmec基因型,揭示牛源MSSA与MRSA之间的演化相关性和MRSA起源和扩散途径,对2009年以来中国五省区不同牛场分离的54株金黄色葡萄球菌进行了药敏试验.对确定的12株MSSA和MRSA进行了耐药基因检测、SCCmec基因型分型和多位点测序分型(MLST)研究.54株菌的药敏结果显示,对红霉素、克林霉素、青霉素、复方新诺明、多西环素、四环素、氯霉素、环丙沙星、庆大霉素的耐药菌株分别为88.8％、81.5％、88.9％、90.7％、92.6％、94.4％、79.6％、63.0％和70.4％.其中,对所测10种抗生素完全耐药的占5.6％,对5种以上耐药的占85.2％,6株(11.1％)对头孢西丁耐药.12株MSSA和MRSA菌株的药敏和耐药基因检测结果显示,3株MRSA对10种抗生素耐药;6株MSSA菌中,新疆分离株对2～4种抗生素耐药,其它省区分离株对7种以上抗菌素耐药.12株MSSA和MRSA菌均检出ermC和tetK基因;6株MRSA中均检出aac(6′)/aph(2")基因,5株检出tetM基因,4株检出aph(3′)-Ⅲ基因;6株MSSA均未检出aac(6′)/aph(2")和aph(3′)-Ⅲ,4株检出tetM基因.用多重PCR对MRSA进行SCCmec基因分型显示,5株为SCCmec Ⅳ,1株未能分型;12株菌的MLST分型发现,所有菌株分为ST50、ST965、ST6、ST97和ST9序列型.经eBURST v3分析,MRSA分布在CC7、CC4、CC21和CC9四个克隆复合群(CCs)中,MSSA分布在CC7和CC32克隆复合群中.以上研究表明,我国牛源金黄色葡萄球菌不仅耐药严重,且表现多重耐药;MRSA基因型以SCCmec Ⅳ为主.对牛源SCCmec Ⅳ型MRSA与同型人源MRSA的耐药谱分析发现有较大差异,推测位于质粒或转座子上的耐药基因可能插入到金黄色葡萄球菌基因组中,导致耐药基因在不同菌株间传播.根据ST97中有MSSA和MRSA以及牛源MRSA与人源MRSA的MLST比较,确认我国牛源MRSA是在抗生素的选择压力下由来源于不同克隆复合群的MSSA获得SCCmec Ⅳ而产生,推测同一克隆株MRSA的扩散并不是MRSA大范围出现的主要原因.     

75株蛋鸡源沙门菌的MLST分型与耐药性分析

旨在掌握2017年7月至2019年5月期间云南地区蛋鸡源沙门菌血清型、药物敏感性及毒力基因携带等基本情况。无菌采集发病鸡肝组织，共分离到沙门菌75株，对分离株进行MLST分型、药物敏感性及相关耐药基因和毒力基因检测。结果显示，MLST鉴定到ST78序列型鸡伤寒沙门菌54株(72.00%)、ST92序列型鸡白痢沙门菌21株(28.00%)；分离株对青霉素的耐药率为100%，对其它抗生素的耐药率分别为: 四环素26.67%、强力霉素26.67%、复方新诺明22.67%、阿莫西林18.67%、氨苄西林16.00%、恩诺沙星14.67%、链霉素8.00%、环丙沙星2.67%、庆大霉素1.33%，共存在7种耐药谱型，28.00%的菌株表现为多重耐药，且集中于鸡伤寒沙门菌；耐药基因tetA、sul2和blaTEM的检出率分别为26.67%、10.67%和8.00%；毒力基因mogA、mgtC、bcfA、araB、stn和spvC的检出率均高达100%，而spvB的检出率为 89.33%。结果表明，鸡伤寒沙门菌和鸡白痢沙门菌为云南地区蛋鸡源沙门菌主要流行血清型，多重耐药情况严重，耐药基因与毒力基因检出率较高。     

乳房链球菌多位点序列分型和遗传进化特征分析

为探究中国不同地区来源的乳房链球菌（Streptococcus uberis，S.uberis）之间的多样性和遗传进化关系，本研究以部分地区分离到的38株乳房链球菌为研究对象，通过对其最小抑菌浓度（minimun inhibitory concentration，MIC）测定和全基因组框架测序，获取38株菌耐药性、耐药基因及毒力基因等相关信息；通过多位点序列分型技术（multilocus sequence typing，MLST）分析了7个管家基因的等位基因谱、序列型（sequence type，ST）和克隆复合体（clonal complexes，CCs），并构建系统进化树。MIC试验共采用15种抗生素，除头孢噻呋和氟苯尼考外，38株乳房链球菌对其中13种抗生素具有不同程度耐药，且江苏地区的耐药性明显强于新疆地区；耐药和毒力基因比对后发现，仅24株菌携带耐药基因，剩余14株则不携带耐药基因且属新疆地区分离株，与MIC试验结果相符；15种毒力基因中，除cfu、hasA/B和lbp外，余下12种毒力基因的携带率均高达100%。MLST结果表明，38株乳房链球菌共属于17个ST型，其中有15个ST型从未报道，仅supan01 1株菌属于ST-5 CCs。进化树结果揭示，38株分离株之间的亲缘性较远，分布呈地区依赖性，且中国部分地区当前流行的乳房链球菌与西方国家流行的菌株差异较大。本研究丰富了乳房链球菌的MLST分型数据库，为了解中国乳房链球菌遗传特性和分布特点提供了参考依据。     

猪源CTX-M型超广谱β-内酰胺酶阳性大肠杆菌耐药基因的流行性分析

为了解福建地区猪源CTX-M阳性大肠杆菌耐药性、耐药基因流行情况以及耐药质粒特征,本研究采用琼脂二倍稀释法测定福建地区分离的67株猪源CTX-M型超广谱β-内酰胺酶阳性大肠杆菌对13种抗菌药物的敏感性,通过PCR检测其重要的耐药基因;通过供体菌与受体菌(C600)的接合转移试验,检测携带CTX-M耐药基因耐药质粒的水平转移情况,并测定接合子的药物敏感性变化以及耐药质粒的复制子类型。结果显示,分离菌株对头孢噻呋(100%)、头孢噻肟(100%)和四环素(94.0%,63/67)耐药性较高,对阿米卡星相对敏感,耐药菌株仅占7.5%(5/67)。耐药基因检测结果显示,53.7%(36/67)的分离株携带3个以上耐药基因,黏菌素耐药基因mcr-1(49.3%,33/67)和氟苯尼考耐药基因floR(37.3%,25/67)的检出率较高,氟喹诺酮类耐药基因aac(6')-Ib-cr和oqxAB、四环素类耐药基因tetA、酰胺醇类耐药基因cmlA和磷霉素耐药基因fosA3的检出率在10.4%～19.4%,氨基糖苷类耐药基因rmtB(4.5%,3/67)的检出率最低;其中以CTX-M+mcr-1+floR耐药基因的组成模式流行为主,检出率为25.4%(17/67)。通过接合转移试验共获得21株接合子,与受体菌C600相比,其对受试药物,如头孢噻呋、头孢噻肟和庆大霉素等的最小抑菌浓度(MIC)提高了2～32倍。复制子分型结果显示17株分离菌分型成功,4株分离菌未能分型,其中以IncF型质粒为主。福建地区猪源CTX-M阳性大肠杆菌对抗菌药物呈较为严重的耐药性,耐药基因的携带率普遍较高且以mcr-1和floR基因流行为主,耐药质粒以IncF型为主。本研究为福建地区猪源大肠杆菌耐药性的风险评估与抗菌药的合理应用提供科学依据。     

长春部分地区犬猫源葡萄球菌的高通量测序分析

为了解长春地区犬猫源金黄色葡萄球菌(Staphylococcu saureus,S.aureus)和伪中间型葡萄球菌(Staphylococcus pseudintermedius,SP)耐药基因和毒力基因携带情况,利用高通量测序技术对17株S.aureus与38株SP所携带的耐药基因与毒力基因进行分析,根据Kirby-Bauer纸片扩散法的结果分析耐药基因型与表型的关系,同时进行了MLST分型。结果表明S.aureus和SP对常规抗菌药物表现中介或耐药,但对呋喃妥因敏感率为100%;β-内酰胺类耐药基因bla_Z检出率较高,分别为100%和57.9%;各有1株同时携带bla_Z和bla_NDM;S.aureus中检出2株携带磷霉素类耐药基因fosA;SP中检出21株携带多药耐药基因cfr;各检出3株携带多药外排耐药基因mdfA;共检出4株MRSA和11株MRSP;优势ST型分别为ST25和ST1430;在大多数分离菌中携带有γ-溶血素hlgB、黏附素clf、fnb、杀白细胞素LukF-PV、LukS-PV等毒力基因。分离株耐...     

猪源多重耐药大肠杆菌Ⅰ型整合子的检测

为分析猪源多重耐药大肠杆菌中Ⅰ型整合子的流行情况,应用PCR方法检测其Ⅰ型整合酶基因(intⅠ)。结果表明:58.6%(34/58)猪源多重耐药大肠杆菌菌株为Ⅰ型整合酶阳性,表明猪源大肠杆菌的多重耐药性与整合子携带高度一致。     

致病性大肠杆菌携带原噬菌体的预测及耐药性与毒力研究

【目的】 研究致病性大肠杆菌携带原噬菌体的比例、原噬菌体携带毒力基因及耐药基因的情况,了解致病性大肠杆菌中原噬菌体对菌株的耐药性与毒力的影响,保证噬菌体生产菌的生物安全性,为大肠杆菌噬菌体的基础研究与应用提供借鉴。【方法】 从NCBI中下载大肠杆菌全基因组信息,通过在线网站预测大肠杆菌中携带的原噬菌体数目,并分析原噬菌体的GC含量、基因组大小、占细菌基因组比例等基因组特征及完整型原噬菌体的类型,对原噬菌体做初步分类,统计分析完整型原噬菌体中携带耐药基因数目、耐药表型、耐药机制与毒力基因数目、毒力基因家族分布等。【结果】 112株大肠杆菌携带完整型原噬菌体1 024个,疑似型原噬菌体287个,缺陷型原噬菌体505个。1 024个完整型原噬菌体中,多数与长尾噬菌体相似,占70.21%（719/1 024）;共有63种噬菌体类型,其中BP4795（登录号：NC_004813.1）类型的占比最高,达到19.24%（197/1 024）,其次是DE3（登录号：NC_042057.1）,占比11.72%（120/1 024）。大肠杆菌携带原噬菌体的GC含量在38%~57%之间,基因组大小为3.1~152.6 kb,其中80 kb以内的原噬菌体占97.03%（1 762/1 816）。1 024个完整型原噬菌体中携带耐药基因占比为6.35%（65/1 024）,共携带耐药基因253个,分别来自11个抗生素耐药基因家族;携带一个或多个毒力基因的完整性原噬菌体占42.78%（438/1 024）,共携带毒力基因1 274个,分别来自9个不同毒力因子家族,平均每个完整型原噬菌体携带毒力基因2.9个。【结论】 大肠杆菌普遍携带原噬菌体,原噬菌体中部分携带耐药基因与毒力基因,在实际应用中应充分评估其风险,防止原噬菌体造成的耐药基因与毒力基因在菌株之间的转移。     

Phage typing of Staphylococcus aureus strains isolated in Sweden from bovine milk.

Both the human and the bovine international sets of phages were used for typing of 372 bovine Staphylococcus aureus (Sa) strains, whereas the bovine set alone was used for typing of a further 1183 strains. In addition, 338 of the strains were tested for antibiotic sensitivity. Out of 372 Sa strains 85.5% could be typed with the human and 89.8% with the bovine phage set. Of all the 1555 Sa strains used 92.4% were lysed by the bovine phage set. Several phage types can be present in one and the same herd and some of them can predominate. Resistance to most of the tested antibiotics was very low. The incidence of resistance to penicillin and ampicillin was 10.0% and 4.4% respectively.     

广西猪源益生菌的分离鉴定与生物学特性研究

为了解广西地区猪粪便与微生态发酵饲料中益生菌的存在情况及合理开发和利用猪源益生菌,本试验共采集了15份猪粪便样品和5份益生菌发酵饲料并对其进行益生菌的分离,研究益生菌的形态学特性、生理生化特性及16S rRNA分子序列,进行生长曲线、耐胆盐试验、温度敏感试验、模拟胃肠道耐受试验、耐药性试验、体外抑菌试验、小鼠安全性试验、体内/外抑菌试验,对分离菌株进行生物学特性的研究分析。结果显示,本试验共分离鉴定出6种、29株益生菌,分别为1株屎肠球菌（C2）、2株乳酸肠球菌（C1、C3）、3株植物乳杆菌（R20、R30、R37）、4株干酪乳杆菌（R41~R44）、7株枯草芽孢杆菌（K1~K7）和12株蜡样芽孢杆菌（Y1~Y12）。从中筛选出6株具有生长性能好、耐胆盐、耐高温、对胃肠道耐受、体外抑菌能力强的益生菌：乳酸肠球菌C1、屎肠球菌C2、植物乳杆菌R20、干酪乳杆菌R41、枯草芽孢杆菌K1和蜡样芽孢杆菌Y3。将筛选出的具有优良特性的菌株进行小鼠安全性试验,结果表明,在10⁹ CFU/mL浓度下灌胃6株益生菌对小鼠是安全无毒害的。与此同时,C2、R20、R41、Y3能极显著提高小鼠日增重（P<0.01）,K1能显著提高小鼠日增重（P<0.05）。体内抑菌试验结果表明,C2、R20、K1能降低沙门氏菌G21感染的小鼠的死亡率,有一定程度的体内抑菌作用。各项试验结果表明,R20和K1可作为猪源益生菌的选择菌株。     

水貂肺炎克雷伯菌的分离鉴定及耐药性分析

【目的】 肺炎克雷伯菌是人畜共患的条件致病菌, 是引起水貂肺炎的常见病原菌之一。试验主要对吉林省某水貂养殖场送检的6只患有肺炎的病死水貂进行细菌分离鉴定及耐药性分析, 为指导临床合理用药提供依据。【方法】 通过分离纯化方法从样品中分离菌株并进行PCR鉴定, 应用多位点序列分型技术(MLST)进行菌株ST分型。通过感染小鼠了解菌株的致病性, PCR检测血清型及毒力基因的携带情况; 运用琼脂稀释法检测分离菌株对18种药物的敏感性, 并通过PCR检测分离菌株耐药基因的携带情况。【结果】 分离得到的6株菌株经PCR鉴定为肺炎克雷伯菌; MLST分析结果表明6株菌株分别有6种ST型, 分别为: ST2594、ST1782、ST2844、ST2330、ST86和ST661。致病性分析结果显示, 6株菌株均可引起小鼠死亡, 共检测出6种毒力基因, 未检测到毒力较强的血清型。药敏试验结果显示, 6株肺炎克雷伯菌对头孢他啶、头孢曲松、亚胺培南、美罗培南、阿米卡星较敏感, 对链霉素、庆大霉素、卡那霉素、青霉素、氨苄西林、环丙沙星、恩诺沙星、左氧氟沙星、多西环素和氟苯尼考较耐药。耐药基因检测结果显示, 6株菌株共检测出bla_SHV、bla_TEM-1、bla_CTX-M-1G、aadA1、aac(3’)-Ⅳ、aac(3’)-Ⅱc、aph(4’)-Ⅰa、aph(3’)-Ⅶ、aph(3’)-Ⅳ、aph(2’)-Ⅰb、rmtB、qnrB、qnrD、qnrS、qepA、oqxAB、floR和mcr-1 18种耐药基因。【结论】 分离到的6株肺炎克雷伯菌株为不同的种系进化, 并具有较强的致病性和耐药性, 为临床用药治疗带来困难。     

High occurrence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus ST398 in equine nasal samples

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infections do occur in equine patients. Little is known, however, about their origin and the general equine MRSA colonization status. In West European horses in particular, neither the colonization rate nor the present strains or their antimicrobial susceptibility patterns are known. In the present study, a sample of 110 (Belgian, French, Dutch and Luxemburg) horses presented at a Belgian equine clinic was screened for nasal MRSA carriage. An indirect culturing protocol using a 0.001% colistin and nalidixic acid containing broth was compared to a direct agar method. Phenotypic identification following growth on a chromogenic MRSA screening agar (ChromID MRSA) was combined with genotypic analysis (PCR, PFGE, SCCmec, spa, and MLST typing). Antimicrobial susceptibility was tested through disk diffusion. Twelve (10.9%) horses carried MRSA, with the enrichment protocol resulting in a significantly higher isolation rate. None of the isolated strains were typeable through SmaI PFGE. They all harboured SCCmec type IVa or V and belonged to spa type t011 or t1451 of the ST398 lineage. All isolates were tetracycline resistant and sulfonamide and enrofloxacin susceptible. Macrolide, lincosamide, trimethoprim and aminoglycoside susceptibility varied and in total five different antimicrobial resistance patterns were distinguished. These results show that ST398 is certainly present in West European horses. Due to its known interspecies transmission and the structure of the equine industry, the presence of this clone in horses poses a substantial health hazard for both animals and humans.     

Methicillin‐Resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ST398 in Pig Farms and Multispecies Farms

During the last few years, methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) ST398 has been isolated frequently from livestock, especially from pigs and to a lesser extent from cattle and poultry. To gain insight into the distribution of this bacterium in pig farms versus multispecies farms, 30 Belgian farms (10 pig, 10 pig/poultry and 10 pig/cattle farms) were screened for the presence of MRSA. On each farm, 10 nasal swabs were taken from pigs. When present, cattle (n = 10) were sampled in the nares and poultry (n = 10) in the nares, earlobes and cloaca. A selection of the obtained isolates were further characterized using multilocus sequence typing (MLST), spa typing, SCCmec typing, pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multiple‐locus variable‐number tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) and antimicrobial susceptibility testing. On 26 of 30 farms, MRSA was isolated from pigs. Furthermore, MRSA was also isolated from poultry and cattle on one pig/poultry and five pig/cattle farms, respectively. All tested MRSA isolates belonged to ST398. Eight spa types (t011, t034, t567, t571, t1451, t2974, t3423 and t5943) were detected, among which t011 predominated. SCCmec cassettes type IVa and V were present in 20% and 72% of the isolates, respectively. When combining the results of the two remaining typing methods, PFGE and MLVA, eighteen genotypes were obtained of which one genotype predominated (56% of the positive farms). All MRSA isolates were resistant to tetracycline. Resistance to trimethoprim, aminoglycosides, macrolides, lincosamides, fluoroquinolones and chloramphenicol was also observed. In conclusion, there was no effect of the farm type on the MRSA status of the pigs. A statistically significant difference was observed when comparing the pig/poultry or the pig/cattle MRSA status on the multispecies farms. Additionally, a wide variety of MRSA ST398 strains was found within certain farms when combining different typing methods.     

Characterization of Methicillin‐Resistant Staphylococcus aureus Isolates from Pig Carcasses in Hong Kong

This study describes the isolation and characterization of methicillin‐resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) from slaughtered pigs sampled from local markets in Hong Kong. The nares of 400 slaughtered pigs were cultured and MRSA isolates characterized for the presence of antibiotic‐resistance determinants, toxins and SCCmec and spa types using PCR. Clonality was investigated using PFGE and MLST. The prevalence of MRSA colonization of slaughter pigs was 39.3%, the majority (92%) harbouring SCCmec type IVb. Of the 157 samples yielding MRSA, 13 had two distinct MRSA strains present. Spa type t899 was predominant, with only 5/170 isolates displaying closely related types (t4474, t1939, t2922 and t5390). PFGE with sma1 and MLST confirmed the strains as ST9. Most isolates were multidrug resistant. Tetracycline resistance (97%) was mainly attributable to tet(K) with only 3% of isolates additionally harbouring tet(M). Resistance to erythromycin (89%) and chloramphenicol (71%) was associated with the presence of erm(C), and fex( A), respectively. No strains carried cfr and there was no resistance to linezolid, although minimum inhibitory concentration (MICs) were close to the resistance break point. Resistance to clindamycin (99%), ciprofloxacin(78%), quinopristin–dalfopristin (44%) and cotrimoxazole (32%) was common, but remained low for fusidic acid (4%) and rifampicin (2%). All strains were negative for PVL, exfoliative, and enterotoxins. This survey confirmed the uniformity of MRSA isolates in pigs from several regions of China, in contrast to more diversified characteristics reported in European studies. Colonization rates were higher than previously reported. Isolates were resistant to a wide range of antibiotics, but resistance was not detected to linezolid, nitrofurantoin, vancomycin or tigecycline. Although the clinical importance of ST9 in humans is uncertain, continued surveillance, in particular of those occupationally‐exposed, is recommended.     

The dual role of wild phages for horizontal gene transfer among Salmonella strains

Salmonella bacteriophages seem to mediate horizontal transfer of virulence functions among Salmonella strains in two different ways: by general transduction and also by lysogenic conversion. The majority of wild phages isolated from Salmonella strains belong to the P22 like phages and were able to transduce. Our data show that the lysogenic conversion is generally accompanied by changes in the susceptibility to the typing phages used for epidemiological purposes. Similar phage type conversions to S. Typhimurium DT104 could be detected upon lysogenization with two other S. Typhimurium strains. For some S. Typhimurium strains the typical phage pattern is actually associated with alterations of virulence characteristics. For example, all tested wild type isolates of phage types DT49 and DT204 were found to be SopE phi-lysogens. The Anderson typing phages interfere with the prophages and/or cryptic phages and so the complex genetic short-term evolution can be demonstrated in the lab. This is one reason for the successful application of phage typing in Salmonella epidemiology since the 50s.     

Molecular characterization of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains from pet animals and veterinary staff in China

The aim of this study was to determine the epidemiology of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) isolates from pet animals and veterinary staff and the characteristics of these isolates. A total of 22 MRSA isolates were isolated from nasal swabs from dogs, cats and veterinary staff in six pet hospitals in six cities, and examined for antimicrobial susceptibility, the presence of resistance genes, Panton-Valentine leukocidin gene lukF-lukS, staphylococcal chromosomal cassette (SCC) mec typing, spa tying, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) and multilocus sequence typing. Of 22 MRSA isolates, 21 were recovered from pet animals, and one was isolated from a member of sstaff. All 22 MRSA strains were resistant to penicillin, oxacillin, azithromycin, clindamycin and ceftriaxone, and harboured mecA, ermB and linA genes. The lukF-lukS gene was not detected in any of the MRSA isolates. Eighteen MRSA strains from Qingdao belonged to ST59-MRSA-IV-spa t437. Of four MRSA isolates from Beijing, one belonged to ST398-MRSA-V-spa t034, and three belonged to ST239-MRSA-III-spa t030 profiles. Two PFGE types (A and B) were identified. Two isolates originating from dogs and one isolate originating from a staff member in Beijing shared similar PFGE patterns. Our cumulative data suggested that cross-transmission of MRSA may have occurred between pet animals and veterinary staff.