复合酶制剂对肉鸡利用豆饼养分的影响

采用强饲法测定豆饼中添加一种复合酶制剂前后的表观代谢能、真代谢能、氮校正表观代谢能、氮校正真代谢能、干物质表观消化率和干物质真消化率,以评估复合酶制剂对鸡利用豆饼养分的影响。选取64只体质量(2.2±0.1)kg的青年粤黄公鸡,随机分成4个处理组,每组4个重复,每重复4只鸡;在48h的饥饿排空期后,其中3组分别强饲无氮料、豆饼和添加酶的豆饼料(酶添加剂量为180mg/kg),另1组继续饥饿;分别收集各重复组的排泄物,经烘干粉碎备用于成分分析。试验结果表明:豆饼在添加酶后的表观代谢能、真代谢能、氮校正表观代谢能、氮校正真代谢能、干物质表观消化率和真消化率均分别较纯豆饼提高6.84%(P0.05)、6.07%(P0.05)、8.13%(P0.05)、7.79%(P0.05)、5.94%(P0.05)和4.22%(P0.05)。复合酶制剂能提高鸡对玉米养分的利用率。     

复合酶制剂对饲喂高粱饲粮肉仔鸡生长性能和血清生化指标的影响

本试验旨在研究高粱饲粮中添加复合酶制剂对爱拔益加(AA)肉仔鸡生长性能、表观代谢能、蛋白质表观消化率和血清生化指标的影响。选取1日龄AA肉仔鸡1 200只,随机分为6个组,每个组10个重复,每个重复20只鸡。对照组饲喂基础饲粮(1~21日龄含8%高粱,22~35日龄含15%高粱),试验组分别饲喂添加不同高粱专用酶组合(复合酶制剂A、B、C、D和E)的基础饲粮,试验期35 d。结果表明,与对照组相比,复合酶制剂B能显著提高肉仔鸡的平均体重(P0.05),显著提高肉仔鸡的欧洲综合指数(EPI)(P0.05),改善了肉仔鸡的成活率和料重比(P0.05),提高了饲粮表观代谢能和蛋白质表观消化率(P0.05);各复合酶制剂对肉仔鸡血清生化指标未产生显著影响(P0.05)。综合各项测定指标,在本试验条件下,高粱饲粮中添加复合酶制剂能改善肉仔鸡的生长性能;结合复合酶的酶谱表明,复配高粱酶制剂时应该考虑提高果胶酶和蛋白酶的配比。     

液体复合酶对肉鸡日粮蛋白质消化率的影响

探讨液体复合酶对肉鸡El粮表观代谢能(AME)及蛋白质利用率的影响,选用16只体质量一致的21日龄AA肉公鸡,随机分为对照组和试验组2个处理,每处理8个重复,每重复1只鸡,试验组日粮在对照组日粮基础中添加100 mL/t液体复合酶配制.结果表明,添加KDN液体复合酶808L组能显著改善日粮的AME(P＜0.05),可提高日粮代谢能0.67 MJ/kg,显著提高日粮能量表观消化率3.1%(P＜0.05),提高日粮蛋白质表观消化率1.8%.     

添加复合酶制剂对肉鸡利用玉米养分的影响

采用强饲法测定玉米在添加一种复合酶制剂前后的表观代谢能、真代谢能、氮校正表观代谢能、氮校正真代谢能、氮真代谢率、干物质表观消化率和干物质真消化率,以评估复合酶制剂对鸡利用玉米养分的影响。64只体质量为(2.2±0.1)kg的青年粤黄公鸡,随机分成4个处理组(每组4个重复,每重复4只鸡);在48 h的饥饿排空期后,其中3组分别强饲无氮料、玉米和添加酶的玉米料(酶添加剂量为180 mg/kg,50 g/只),另1组继续饥饿;分别收集各重复组的排泄物,经烘干粉碎备用于成分分析。试验结果表明:玉米在添加酶后的鸡表观代谢能、真代谢能、氮校正表观代谢能、氮校正真代谢能、氮真代谢率、干物质表观消化率和真消化率均分别显著高于纯玉米,其提高率分别为6.18%、5.64%、4.66%、4.5%、54.93%、8.22%和7.4%。复合酶制剂能显著提高鸡对玉米养分的利用率。     

松针粉对散养柴鸡养分消化率和表观代谢能的影响

为了研究散养柴鸡日粮中添加松针粉对养分消化率和表观代谢能的影响,确定松针粉添加于日粮的最佳比例,试验将120只160日龄体重约1.0 kg健康柴鸡分为4组,每组3个重复,每个重复10只,在柴鸡基础日粮中分别添加0(A组)、3%(B组)、5%(C组)、7%(D组)松针粉,测定消化代谢相关指标。结果表明:与A组相比,B、C组干物质表观消化率显著提高(P0.05),B、D组蛋白质表观消化率显著提高(P0.05),B组饲料代谢能显著提高(P0.05),B组中性洗涤纤维表观消化率、酸性洗涤纤维表观消化率显著提高(P0.05),B、C、D组大部分氨基酸消化率显著提高(P0.05)。说明柴鸡日粮中添加松针粉可以提高养分消化率和代谢能,对氨基酸消化率也有提高作用,以3%的松针粉添加量较适宜。     

不同复合酶制剂对肉鸡生长性能的影响

本试验研究了在玉米-豆粕型日粮中添加5种不同厂家的复合酶制剂对肉鸡生长性能的影响。试验将9 792只1日龄的ROSS 308肉仔鸡随机分为6个处理组,每个处理16个重复,每个重复102只肉鸡。设立A组为空白组不加酶饲喂基础日粮(玉米-豆粕型),B、C、D、E、F组为复合酶组,在基础日粮的基础上分别添加来自5个不同厂家的复合酶制剂。添加量为300g/t(全价配合料),试验周期40d,结果显示,试验各组出栏均重都分别高于对照组,但无显著差异(P0.05);B组成活率显著高于对照组(P0.05),其他各组成活率略高于对照组但差异不显著(P0.05);E组料肉比显著低于对照组(P0.05),其他各组料肉比略低于对照组但差异不显著(P0.05);B、C、E组毛利润显著高于对照组(P0.05),D、F组略高于对照组但差异不显著(P0.05);B、C、E组欧指显著高于对照组(P0.05),D、F组略高于对照组,但差异不显著(P0.05)。结果表明,在玉米-豆粕型日粮中添加一定剂量的复合酶制剂能在一定程度上提高肉鸡生长性能,其中加E配方复合酶300g/t(全价配合料)饲喂肉鸡能体现出最佳的生产性能。     

添加蛋白酶对肉鸭菜籽粕代谢能值的影响

本试验旨在评价添加蛋白酶对肉鸭菜籽粕代谢能值和饲粮养分真利用率的改善效果。选用19周龄以上健康的樱桃谷肉公鸭,采用真代谢能(TME)结合套算法进行代谢试验,选用5种不同蛋白质溶解度的菜籽粕(分别命名为A1、A2、A3、A4、A5),菜籽粕按40%替代玉米,豆粕按35%替代玉米。试验设13个组,包括1个玉米组、1个豆粕组、1个饥饿内源组、5个菜籽粕不加酶组、5个菜籽粕加酶组(蛋白酶制剂添加量为200 mg/kg,蛋白酶制剂中蛋白酶活性为1×105U/g)。每个组设12个重复,每个重复1只鸭。结果表明:1)添加蛋白酶使菜籽粕饲粮干物质(DM)、粗脂肪(EE)、粗蛋白质(CP)、中性洗涤纤维(NDF)、酸性洗涤纤维(ADF)、粗纤维(CF)、粗灰分(Ash)、钙(Ca)、磷(P)真利用率分别提高了3.73%(P0.05)、9.92%(P0.05)、8.51%(P0.05)、15.78%(P 0.05)、17.09%(P 0.05)、2.12%(P0.05)、8.55%(P 0.05)、2.81%(P0.05)、12.96%(P0.05);2)添加蛋白酶可以显著提高菜籽粕的表观代谢能(AME)、TME、氮校正表观代谢能(AMEn)、氮校正真代谢能(TMEn)(P0.05),提高程度分别为2.01、2.01、1.80、1.80 MJ/kg。综上可知,添加蛋白酶可以改善肉鸭菜籽粕代谢能值和菜籽粕饲粮养分真利用率。     

高粱饲粮中添加复合酶制剂和益生菌对肉鸡饲粮表观代谢能、屠宰性能和肉品质的影响

本试验旨在研究高粱饲粮中添加复合酶制剂和益生菌对良凤花肉鸡屠宰性能、肉品质、表观代谢能和主要营养物质表观消化率的影响。试验选取900只1日龄体重相近的健康良凤花公鸡,随机分为5个组,分别为对照组(基础饲粮)、高粱组、高粱+复合酶组、高粱+益生菌组和高粱+复合酶+益生菌组,每组6个重复,每个重复30只鸡。试验全期为68 d。分为前期(1~28日龄)、后期(29~56日龄)和代谢试验期(57~68日龄)3个阶段进行。试验组前期用高粱替代约30%的玉米,复合酶制剂添加量为200 g/t;后期用高粱替代约50%的玉米,复合酶制剂添加量为300 g/t;全期益生菌添加量为100 g/t。结果表明:1)与对照组相比,高粱+复合酶组和高粱+复合酶+益生菌组粗纤维(CF)表观消化率显著提高(P0.05),各试验组表观代谢能(AME)及其余营养物质表观消化率差异不显著(P0.05)。2)与对照组相比,高粱+益生菌组和高粱+复合酶+益生菌组半净膛率显著提高(P0.05),各组其他屠宰性能指标均无显著差异(P0.05)。3)与对照组相比,高粱+复合酶+益生菌组胸肌亮度(L*)值显著提高(P0.05),试验组腿肌红度(a*)值显著降低(P0.05)。综上,在高粱饲粮中添加复合酶制剂和益生菌可以提高CF的表观消化率,对肉鸡屠宰性能和肉品质均无不良影响。     

小麦型日粮添加木聚糖酶和植酸酶对肉鸡生长性能、回肠氨基酸表观消化率及常量元素沉积的影响

本文旨在研究小麦型日粮中添加木聚糖酶和植酸酶对肉鸡生长性能、回肠氨基酸表观消化率及矿物元素沉积的影响。试验选择1日龄科宝白羽肉仔鸡850只,随机分成5组,每组5个重复,每个重复34只鸡。一共有5种日粮,即低磷日粮、高磷日粮、低磷日粮+2000 IU/kg木聚糖酶、低磷日粮+500 FTU/kg植酸酶,低磷日粮+2000 IU/kg木聚糖酶+500 FTU/kg植酸酶,试验进行21 d。低磷组较高磷组显著降低了肉鸡的日增重、日采食量及趾骨灰分含量(P <0.05),与低磷组相比,木聚糖酶组显著降低了肉鸡的料比(P <0.05),而植酸酶组显著提高了肉鸡日增重、日采食量、趾骨灰分及饲料利用率(P <0.05)。复合酶组显著提高了15种氨基酸回肠表观消化率(P <0.05)。与低磷组相比,木聚糖酶组显著提高了表观消化能和可消化代谢能及回肠氮消化率(P <0.05),而植酸酶显著提高了氮沉积及回肠氮消化率(P <0.05),复合酶组显著提高了代谢能、可消化代谢能及氮沉积量(P <0.05)。植酸酶和复合酶组较高磷组显著提高了磷表观消化率和沉积量(P <0.05),但低磷组较高磷组显著提高了钙的表观消化率(P <0.05),植酸酶酶和复合酶组较其他3组显著提高了钾的沉积量(P <0.05)。结论 :小麦型日粮同时添加植酸酶和木聚糖酶对肉鸡生长和消化的影响要优于单独添加这两种酶。     

复合酶对临武鸭几种饼粕饲料原料养分利用率和代谢能的影响

本试验旨在研究复合酶(蛋白酶、纤维素酶和木聚糖酶)对临武鸭几种饼粕饲料原料(大豆粕、大豆渣、棉籽粕、2种菜籽粕、花生仁粕、2种芝麻粕)养分利用率和代谢能的影响。试验选用48只体重2.0 kg左右的健康成年临武鸭公鸭,随机分为6组,每组8个重复,每个重复1只鸭。采用绝食强饲-全收粪法进行3个批次代谢试验,每种原料均设对照组和添加复合酶组(试验原料中添加250 mg/kg的复合酶),对每只试验鸭强饲60 g试验原料,内源组强饲60 g无氮饲粮。测定添加复合酶条件下,临武鸭对8个饼粕饲料原料的表观代谢能(AME)、真代谢能(TME)及干物质(DM)、粗蛋白质(CP)、粗脂肪(EE)和粗纤维(CF)表观利用率和真可利用率。结果表明:临武鸭对8个饼粕类原料的DM、CP、EE和CF表观利用率分别为38.85%~62.86%、50.73%~65.39%、50.16%~74.50%和32.32%~46.46%,AM E和TM E分别为6.82~12.72 M J/kg,8.79~14.69 M J/kg,添加复合酶使临武鸭对几种饼粕饲料原料的DM、CP、EE和CF的有效营养改进值(ENIV)分别为6.25~21.70 g/kg、2.60~16.73 g/kg、0.13~8.66 g/kg和0.66~2.74 g/kg,TM E提高了0.19~1.15 M J/kg。由此可知,添加复合酶能够一定程度地提高临武鸭对饼粕饲料原料的养分利用率和代谢能。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.