Managing water in rainfed agriculture—The need for a paradigm shift

Rainfed agriculture plays and will continue to play a dominant role in providing food and livelihoods for an increasing world population. We describe the world's semi-arid and dry sub-humid savannah and steppe regions as global hotspots, in terms of water related constraints to food production, high prevalence of malnourishment and poverty, and rapidly increasing food demands. We argue that major water investments in agriculture are required. In these regions yield gaps are large, not due to lack of water per se, but rather due to inefficient management of water, soils, and crops. An assessment of management options indicates that knowledge exists regarding technologies, management systems, and planning methods. A key strategy is to minimise risk for dry spell induced crop failures, which requires an emphasis on water harvesting systems for supplemental irrigation. Large-scale adoption of water harvesting systems will require a paradigm shift in Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM), in which rainfall is regarded as the entry point for the governance of freshwater, thus incorporating green water resources (sustaining rainfed agriculture and terrestrial ecosystems) and blue water resources (local runoff). The divide between rainfed and irrigated agriculture needs to be reconsidered in favor of a governance, investment, and management paradigm, which considers all water options in agricultural systems. A new focus is needed on the meso-catchment scale, as opposed to the current focus of IWRM on the basin level and the primary focus of agricultural improvements on the farmer's field. We argue that the catchment scale offers the best opportunities for water investments to build resilience in small-scale agricultural systems and to address trade-offs between water for food and other ecosystem functions and services.     

Environmental decision support system development for seasonal wetland salt management in a river basin subjected to water quality regulation

Seasonally managed wetlands in the Grasslands Basin on the west-side of California’s San Joaquin Valley provide food and shelter for migratory wildfowl during winter months and sport for waterfowl hunters during the annual duck season. Surface water supply to these wetlands contain salt which, when drained to the San Joaquin River (SJR) during the annual drawdown period, can negatively impact water quality and cause concern to downstream agricultural riparian water diverters. Recent environmental regulation, limiting discharges salinity to the SJR and primarily targeting agricultural non-point sources, now also targets return flows from seasonally managed wetlands. Real-time water quality management has been advocated as a means of continuously matching salt loads discharged from agricultural, wetland and municipal operations to the assimilative capacity of the SJR. Past attempts to build environmental monitoring and decision support systems (EDSS’s) to implement this concept have enjoyed limited success for reasons that are discussed in this paper. These reasons are discussed in the context of more general challenges facing the successful implementation of a comprehensive environmental monitoring, modelling and decision support system for the SJR Basin.     

Fisheries and water productivity in tropical river basins: Enhancing food security and livelihoods by managing water for fish

Faced with growing pressure upon freshwater resources, increased water productivity in agriculture is essential. Efforts to do so however need to consider the wider role of water in sustaining food production. This paper considers the importance of water management in sustaining fish production in tropical river basins, and the potential for enhancing food production and income to farmers by integrating fish production into some farming systems. Specific examples from selected river systems and irrigated farming systems in Africa and Asia are provided. These highlight the benefits of integrating the water requirements for fish into water allocation decisions. In some cases, these benefits can be realised without any reduction in the water available for other purposes, while in others, a trade-off needs to be considered. The nature of these trade-offs needs to be better understood for better decision making in water management.     

Water quality implications of raising crop water productivity

Because of a growing and more affluent population, demand for agricultural products will increase rapidly over the coming decades, with serious implications for agricultural water demand. Symptoms of water scarcity are increasingly apparent, threatening ecosystem services and the sustainability of food production. Improved water productivity will reduce the additional water requirements in agriculture. However, there is a tradeoff between the quantity of water used in agriculture and the quality of return flow. Where yields are low due to limited nitrogen (N) and water supply, water productivity can be enhanced through higher fertilizer applications and improved water management. This limits the amount of additional water needed for increased food demand, thus leaving more water for environmental requirements. But it also increases the amount of nitrate (NO₃–N) leaching, thus adversely affecting the water quality of return flows.This paper quantifies the tradeoff between enhanced water productivity and NO₃–N leaching and shows the importance of the right management of water and N applications. Using the Decision Support System for Agro-technology Transfer (DSSAT) crop model, several scenarios combining different water and N application regimes are examined for maize (Zea mays L.) in Gainesville, FL, USA. Without adequate water, nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) remains low, resulting in substantial NO₃–N leaching. Too much water leads to excessive NO₃–N leaching and lower water productivity. The lack of N is a cause of low water productivity but too much of it leads to lower NUE and higher losses. The paper concludes that increased NO₃–N leaching is an inevitable by-product of increased water productivity, but its adverse impacts can greatly be reduced by better management of water and N application. The paper briefly shows that leaching can be reduced and water productivity increased by split application of N-fertilizer. This implies that improved water and nutrient management at field- and scheme-level is a prerequisite to limit adverse impacts of agriculture on ecosystems, now and especially in the future.     

Containment basin water quality fluctuation and implications for crop health management

Containment basins (CB) are an integral part of recycling irrigation systems that foster agricultural sustainability through water resource conservation. However, little is known regarding this aquatic ecosystem and the lack of water quality data has become an increasingly serious liability in crop health management. Here we report on four distinct seasonal and two diurnal patterns of change in water quality in the CBs. The four seasonal patterns are (a) periodic fluctuation in chlorophyll a, pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO), (b) oxidation–reduction potential (ORP) rises with decreasing DO, (c) tendency for increase in electrical conductivity, salinity, and total dissolved solids, and (d) weather-dependent changes in turbidity and temperature. The two diurnal patterns are (1) chlorophyll a, pH, DO, and temperature consistently peak between 16:00 and 17:00 hours and bottom out around 08:00 hours, and (2) ORP peaks in the morning and bottoms in the evening. Eight of the nine parameters excluding temperature were correlated; and algal blooms appear to be a major driving force for changes in the other seven parameters. These results underscore the importance of water quality monitoring in irrigation management and provide a framework for better understanding of pathogen aquatic ecology and how changes in water quality might be employed in a manner that suppresses plant pathogens and improves crop quality and productivity.     

An integrated ecological approach to agricultural policy-making with reference to the urban fringe: The case of Hong Kong

An integrated ecological approach to agricultural production, urban planning and food policy-making is examined in respect of the agricultural zone peripheral to large urban settlements. It is asserted that intensive agriculture at the urban-rural interface can reduce reliance on food imports from other countries, provide employment opportunities, recycle valuable urban and agricultural wastes back into the human food chain and maintain environmental amenity for the human population. The ecosystem approach to urban fringe agriculture is examined in the context of Hong Kong, a city of 4·5 million people. It is hypothesised that intensive agriculture in Hong Kong, developed in the ways specified, can provide a model for ecological management of the urban-rural interface for urban settlements in general.     

贾鲁河流域郑州段水域生态系统健康评估

为了确定贾鲁河流域郑州段水域生态健康的主要制约因子,以为水域生态系统修复提供参考,采用综合指标体系法,在环境保护部《流域生态系统健康评价技术指南(2013试行)》基础上,制定贾鲁河流域郑州段水域生态健康评估的指标体系,结合遥感解译、采样监测及实际调查数据,对区域内4个评价单元进行了水域生态系统健康评估。结果表明,贾鲁河流域郑州段水域生态健康整体处于"较差"水平,上游索须河和源头段水域生态健康状况优于中下游的市区段和中牟段,主要限制因子为河道连通性,其中市区段水质状况指数影响更显著;水域生态系统健康压力主要来源于水资源开发利用强度和生态需水保证率。贾鲁河流域郑州段水域生态修复应重点从补充生态需水、保障河道连通性和控制入河污染物3方面展开。     

乡村湿地公园生态恢复与旅游开发

湿地是生态系统的重要组成部分,它是介于陆地和水域系统之间的一种生态模式,不仅拥有较丰富的生物种类,同时还具有较高的生态能效。在城镇化的进程中,各种工农业的发展难免会对乡村环境中的湿地造成影响和破坏。以乡村湿地公园旅游开发为切入点,深入探讨了湿地开发对生态环境以及旅游的影响。      

水电开发下的河流生态系统管理

水电开发对河流水质、水文情势、泥沙等物理化学状况有着较大的改变，从而引起其中的水生生物及整个河流生态系统的重新调整，影响河流生态系统服务功能的正常发挥。探讨这些影响并对河流生态系统进行正确的管理，关系到河流生态系统甚至整个流域的可持续发展。本文简述了河流生态系统管理的发展过程以及水电开发对河流的影响，并针对这些影响，总结了对应的河流生态系统管理方法，为水电开发下河流生态系统的科学管理和促进流域可持续发展提供参考。     

基于生态系统服务的附属农用地生态景观模块化设计研究

农用地为人类提供的多元功能很大程度上取决于农用地的生态系统服务功能，对农业生态景观进行科学合理设计是提升农用地生态系统服务的有效途径之一。但是，占据一定面积的附属农用地在现有的农用地生态景观设计中常被忽略。为了有效发挥附属农用地的生态景观效应，增加农用地物种丰富度和相关生态系统服务，以生态系统服务作为切入点，对田坎、田间道路、沟渠和护坡等附属农用地的生态景观设计进行研究，重点研究附属农用地生态景观的模块化设计方法。研究结果提出了5大类10种景观设计模块，并对其生态和景观效应、适用场地和组合应用进行了分析。该设计方法可以在满足农业生产辅助功能的基础上，构建能够提升生物多样性水平，改善农用地生态系统服务价值，同时又能体现地域性特色的农业土地景观。      

Salinity dynamics of wetland ditches receiving drainage from irrigated agricultural land in arid and semi-arid regions

Agricultural drainage ditches are considered as wetland ecosystems when they possess the characteristic hydrology, soil and vegetation of wetlands. In arid and semi-arid regions, wetlands receiving agricultural drainage have to cope with the conservative nature of salts leached from soils. Excessive accumulation of salts in wetlands may threaten the ecological functions of the system, thus endanger the sustainability of the drainage disposal system and the productivity of the farmlands. Based on the salt and water balance in a farmland drainage and wetland disposal system in arid regions, this paper presents a thorough investigation on salinity dynamics of wetland ditches receiving agricultural drainage. Theoretical equations were derived to describe salinity changes in water and soils of wetlands under both equilibrium and pre-equilibrium conditions; a case example was then used to display model predictions of salinity variations over time under different salinity management goals. The example wetlands are de facto drainage ditches that possess wetland characteristics, and the ditch to farmland area ratio is 9.1%. The results showed that salt as a conservative substance will eventually concentrate in the ditches to a very high level if there is little outflow discharge; but the salt accumulation process may develop over a relatively long time, which opens a time window for management practice, such as flushing the salts when fresh water is available. By assuming different threshold salinity levels in the ditches, the proposed analytical models were used to predict time intervals when fresh water recharge is needed to bring down the salinity level in the ditches. For the study area under current drainage practice, the predicted outflow to inflow ratio for salinity was 58.2% and reached an equilibrium level of 9.60 g L⁻¹ in the ditches; salinity levels in the ditches reached threshold values of 5, 7 and 9 g L⁻¹, in about 1, 4 and 12 years, respectively. Salinity analysis showed that the salt retention capacity of the ditch soil is limited, the soil salinity varied according to the ditch water; salt removal through plant uptake and harvest was insignificant. This study indicates that although salt concentration in wetlands receiving agricultural drainage may eventually build up to a critical level, timely recharge with fresh water may bring down salt content in the wetlands and sustain adequate environmental and ecological functions of such a drainage disposal system in arid and semi-arid regions.     

River basin closure: Processes, implications and responses

Increasing water withdrawals for urban, industrial, and agricultural use have profoundly altered the hydrology of many major rivers worldwide. Coupled with degradation of water quality, low flows have induced severe environmental degradation and water has been rendered unusable by downstream users. When supply of water falls short of commitments to fulfil demand in terms of water quality and quantity within the basin and at the river mouth, for part or all of the year, basins are said to be closing. Basin closure is an anthropogenic process and manifested at societal as well as ecosystem levels, and both its causes and consequences are analyzed. Implications in terms of increased interconnectedness between categories of users and between societal processes and ecosystems in different parts of river basins are emphasized. Finally, several possible responses to the challenges posed by the overexploitation of water resources are reviewed.     

山水林田湖草系统治理的理论与方法综述

【目的】统筹山水林田湖草系统治理是中国特色社会主义生态文明建设的重要内容,是建设美丽中国、实现人与自然和谐共生的重要途径。国内外运用最为广泛的山水林田湖草系统治理的理论和方法主要有基于自然的解决方案（NbS）、再野化、景感生态学、生态安全格局和生态系统服务等五种,但目前对这些理论和方法的相互联系和区别尚不清晰,厘清这些理论与方法的联系和区别,对科学合理选用治理方法,形成具有中国特色生态治理体系有参考意义。【方法】本文从定义及发展、准则、实施方法、典型案例等方面系统梳理了山水林田湖草系统治理的五种理论与方法。【结果】5种理论与方法从不同角度体现了山水林田湖草生命共同体的理念,运用生态系统的恢复力和适应性,通过自然恢复和人为干预等手段,使退化或者破坏的生态系统回归到一种稳定、健康、可持续的发展状态,但它们在人为干预程度、适用范围、与人类关系的密切程度等方面有差异。【结论】认识到山水林田湖草系统治理不同理论与方法的特点、适用性和局限性,结合治理区域的特点和问题,针对性地选择治理方法;不断丰富和完善符合中国国情、具有中国特色的山水林田湖草系统治理体系。     

Fate and risks of potentially toxic elements in wastewater-fed food production systems—the examples of Cambodia and Vietnam

Non-treated wastewater is used for irrigation of aquatic food production systems in the peri-urban areas of the major cities in Southeast Asia. This paper complement the knowledge on agricultural soil-based crops irrigated with low quality water, by reviewing the research findings on the wastewater-fed aquatic productions with special focus on heavy metals and other potentially toxic elements (PTEs) in the production systems of Hanoi in Vietnam and Phnom Penh in Cambodia. In Hanoi, sediments in the wastewater exposed rivers of Hanoi were reported to be polluted with PTEs, in particular with Cadmium (Cd). The river sediment had a high retention capacity for PTEs which seems to prevent the transport of PTEs to the wastewater-fed production systems. In Phnom Penh, domestic and industrial wastewater is pumped into the Cheung Ek Lake located south of the city. A major part of the water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica Forssk.) consumed in the city is produced in the lake. The concentrations of some PTEs were elevated at the wastewater inlets to the lake compared to concentrations at the lake outlet and at the control site. Water spinach is by far the major vegetable produced in the wastewater-fed systems in Hanoi and Phnom Penh, but did only contain PTEs in concentrations within or slightly above the concentration range observed for water spinach grown in agricultural soil not exposed to wastewater. PTE concentration in fish grown in wastewater-fed systems in Hanoi and Phnom were low. However, mean PTE concentrations in liver and skin of some fish were high. Consumption of muscle tissue from fish produced in wastewater-fed systems in Hanoi and Phnom Penh resulted in an estimated intake of PTEs amounting to less than 9% of the tolerable intake. It was concluded, that the PTE concentrations in fish and water spinach from Hanoi and Cheung Ek Lake in Phnom Penh constituted low food safety risks for consumers.     

山西省农业水分生产率评价

农业是国民经济用水的大户,农业节水对水生态系统的保护与修复十分重要,在国际粮食供求趋紧的背景下.提高农业水分生产力是农业节水的关键.应用农业标准产量概念,建立农业水分生产率评价方法,以行政分区为分析单元,研究山西省农业水分生产率与灌溉强度、灌溉广度以及复种指教之间的关系,评价区域农业水分生产率状态,分析了不同区域水分生产率及单位标准产量高低的原因,为山西省水生态修复工作的开展提供基础资料.     

西北现代生态灌区建设理论与技术保障体系构建

灌区是我国粮食安全和现代农业发展的基础保障,同时也是区域经济发展和生态环境保护的重要基石。然而西北地区独特的气候、地貌及社会经济状况导致了灌区生产能力和生态服务功能难以满足现代生态农业发展的需求。通过系统分析西北灌溉农业发展中面临的水资源过度开发、土壤盐碱化严重、生态环境功能低下等方面的问题,阐述了西北现代生态灌区的内涵与特征,并基于农业生产“功能水分”来源,将西北灌区划分成了灌溉依赖型灌区、灌溉主导型灌区、灌溉补充型灌区和灌溉提质型灌区4类。以灌区农业生产系统、物能输配系统、生态环境系统为建设对象,提出了灌区生态服务功能优化配置、灌区农田物能调控和灌区生态系统安全评估三大核心理论,构建了灌区系统控污与景观价值提升技术、灌排系统管控技术、作物生境要素综合调控技术三大关键技术,从而形成了西北现代生态灌区理论与技术保障体系,为我国西北灌溉农业高质量可持续发展提供理论与技术指导。     

Water harvesting and supplemental irrigation for improved water productivity of dry farming systems in West Asia and North Africa

In the dry areas, water, not land, is the most limiting resource for improved agricultural production. Maximizing water productivity, and not yield per unit of land, is therefore a better strategy for dry farming systems. Under such conditions, more efficient water management techniques must be adopted. Supplemental irrigation (SI) is a highly efficient practice with great potential for increasing agricultural production and improving livelihoods in the dry rainfed areas. In the drier environments, most of the rainwater is lost by evaporation; therefore the rainwater productivity is extremely low. Water harvesting can improve agriculture by directing and concentrating rainwater through runoff to the plants and other beneficial uses. It was found that over 50% of lost water can be recovered at a very little cost. However, socioeconomic and environmental benefits of this practice are far more important than increasing agricultural water productivity. This paper highlights the major research findings regarding improving water productivity in the dry rainfed region of West Asia and North Africa. It shows that substantial and sustainable improvements in water productivity can only be achieved through integrated farm resources management. On-farm water-productive techniques if coupled with improved irrigation management options, better crop selection and appropriate cultural practices, improved genetic make-up, and timely socioeconomic interventions will help to achieve this objective. Conventional water management guidelines should be revised to ensure maximum water productivity instead of land productivity.     

The water transfer effects on agricultural development in the lower Tarim River, Xinjiang of China

The ecological process in the Tarim River, Xinjiang, northwest China, has undergone great changes due to human disturbance over the past 50 years. Most notably, alteration in the spatial-temporal pattern of water resources has resulted in a damaged or degraded vegetative ecosystem in the lower reaches of Tarim River, a condition that restricts local economical development. However, after raising the water level by watering to the lower Tarim River, such ecological degradation was obviously reversed within a certain region of the water channel. Both agricultural production and animal husbandry improved greatly as well. Taking the 35th state farm as an example, the areas utilized or available for farming increased greatly; furthermore, the total value of agricultural production is 1293.13 × 10⁴ US$, increased by 128% (the rate between the increased production and the original one) after adoption of new management of water. Livestock population has experienced a growth trend as a result of water transfer compared before water transfer. The results of this investigation suggest that the reversible state of the eco-environment following watering has had a positive effect on local agricultural development. In addition, we analyzed the relationship between ecological change and agricultural development and discuss water resource management and its ecological significance.     

Livestock water productivity in mixed crop–livestock farming systems of the Blue Nile basin: Assessing variability and prospects for improvement

Water scarcity is a major factor limiting food production. Improving Livestock Water Productivity (LWP) is one of the approaches to address those problems. LWP is defined as the ratio of livestock’s beneficial outputs and services to water depleted in their production. Increasing LWP can help achieve more production per unit of water depleted. In this study we assess the spatial variability of LWP in three farming systems (rice-based, millet-based and barley-based) of the Gumera watershed in the highlands of the Blue Nile basin, Ethiopia. We collected data on land use, livestock management and climatic variables using focused group discussions, field observation and secondary data. We estimated the water depleted by evapotranspiration (ET) and beneficial animal products and services and then calculated LWP. Our results suggest that LWP is comparable with crop water productivity at watershed scales. Variability of LWP across farming systems of the Gumera watershed was apparent and this can be explained by farmers’ livelihood strategies and prevailing biophysical conditions. In view of the results there are opportunities to improve LWP: improved feed sourcing, enhancing livestock productivity and multiple livestock use strategies can help make animal production more water productive. Attempts to improve agricultural water productivity, at system scale, must recognize differences among systems and optimize resources use by system components.     

节水防污型农田水利系统方案设计及应用研究

鉴于我国传统的灌排模式及粗放型水稻种植方式,未经任何处理的稻田排水携带高浓度氮磷元素直接排入下游,引起水质恶化,造成水稻灌区严重的农业面源污染。基于农业面源污染的研究现状,构建了由田间水肥综合调控-田间草沟-湿地-骨干生态沟"四道防线"组成的净化农田排水的节水防污型农田水利系统,为验证该系统的净化效果,在广西桂林市青狮潭灌区及桂林灌溉试验中心站开展对比试验研究。试验表明,氮磷排放负荷指标沿程逐级下降,通过"四道防线"后,总氮、铵态氮、总磷负荷分别削减了70.4%、83.5%、61.0%,净化效果明显。研究内容不仅丰富了农业面源污染治理的控制方法和管理措施,也对我国南方水稻灌区面源污染治理具有现实意义。