Abalone ranching: a review on genetic considerations

Haliotis L. (abalone) is an economically important genus comprising approximately 14 species with commercial value. Unfortunately, due to habitat destruction, overfishing and illegal harvesting, this wild resource is being depleted to unrecoverable status worldwide. To supply the world demand, abalone are cultured in artificial hatchery environments. In the past few decades, attention has been paid to use these artificial environments to the benefit of the species by implementing abalone ranching or reseeding. This is done in an attempt to rebuild the collapsed populations and to prevent further declines in fished stocks. In various countries in which commercial production is in operation, this has been attempted with various levels of success. For ranching to be successful, various factors, however, need to be considered, one of the most important probably being the correct genetic management of such a ranching programme. Genetic management should include using broodstock that are representatives of natural populations, minimizing the effects of hatchery practices on the genetic make‐up of the animals to be released and investigating the genetic impacts of this practice on wild populations. In this review, the genetic management and the effects if management is not implemented are discussed as well as the potential of molecular markers to be used as genetic tags in identifying hatchery‐reared animals.     

Shell marking by artificial feeding of the tropical abalone Haliotis asinina Linne juveniles for sea ranching and stock enhancement

A method of marking abalone (Haliotis asinina Linne) for sea ranching and stock enhancement purposes was developed. Three‐month‐old abalone juveniles (11.8‐mm shell length, 0.28 g) were fed artificial diets for 1, 2, or 3 weeks. The width of the bluish‐green shell band produced by abalone juveniles was 1.7, 2.6, and 4.2 mm after 1, 2, or 3 weeks of feeding respectively. The growth and survival of juveniles fed artificial diets did not differ from that of juveniles fed the seaweed Gracilariopsis bailinae (control). Feeding the diet‐fed juveniles with the seaweed thereafter produced the natural brownish shell, thus forming a sandwiched bluish‐green band. An experimental release in outdoor tanks with natural growth of seaweeds and diatoms, and in a marine reserve showed that the shell band remained clear and distinct, indicating the usefulness of this shell marking method in sea ranching and stock enhancement of abalone.     

The enhancement of abalone stocks: lessons from Japanese case studies

The dramatic declines in abalone Haliotis spp. fishery production have been documented all over the world. Release of hatchery‐reared juveniles into natural habitats has been considered as one measure to sustain and/or augment the current fishery production of abalone, as well as to restore collapsed abalone stocks. However, attempts at abalone release programmes have only been undertaken at experimental scales, except for Japan, where large‐scale stock enhancement programmes for abalone have been undertaken since late 1960s. To evaluate the potential of stock enhancement for abalone, we analysed the release surveys of 13 case studies in Japan in terms of the overall recapture rate (number of recaptures through a lifetime/number of juveniles released), yield per release (YPR, yields from released individuals), the economic efficiency of releases (ratio of income from recaptured abalone to release cost) for each release year, and the contribution of hatchery releases to total catches for each fishing year. The average estimates for overall recapture rates (0.014–0.238) and YPR (3.1–60.3 g/individual) varied between locations and release years. The economic efficiency was estimated at 0.4–6.2. The released abalone contributed 6.9–83.5% to total catches. Hatchery releases could augment total production at some locations, but the success of release programmes would be limited by the carrying capacity at release areas, because density‐dependent mortality occurred following releases in some cases. Throughout Japan, the annual catch of abalone has continuously declined from ～6500 t in 1970 to ～2000 t in the mid‐1990s, despite the increase in the number of hatchery releases. Based on the estimates for YPR, the magnitude of the abalone releases on a national scale has not been sufficiently large to sustain the total production of Japanese abalone, which has primarily fluctuated according to the abundances of wild populations. Our results suggest that releases should be targeted at local populations in regions where stock enhancement is predicted to have the greatest chance of success, and the magnitude of releases should be considered carefully and determined for each region by taking the local carrying capacity into account. We also address the future prospects of abalone stock enhancement.     

Monitoring of the genetic variability of the hatchery and recaptured fish in the stock enhancement program of the rare species barfin flounder <Emphasis Type="Italic">Verasper moseri</Emphasis>

ABSTRACT:   In relation to the stock enhancement program for barfin flounder, hatchery juveniles produced in 2001 were genotyped using microsatellite DNA markers (msDNA) and then released to natural waters. Subsequently, recaptured individuals, designated as 'tentative recaptured', were examined using msDNA. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the stock enhancement program, pairwise F _ST and genic differentiation tests were used to estimate the genetic divergence between the wild samples, the hatchery broodstock, and the tentative recaptured samples. Analysis showed significant differentiation among these three groups. Pedigree determination by msDNA was used to establish the origin of the tentative recaptured individuals, in order to elucidate whether they were hatchery produced, 'real recaptured', or wild specimens. Wild individuals were not found. The effective population size of the real recaptured stock was very low ( N _e = 16.6). Equal family survivability was observed between the released and real recaptured stocks, indicating that the genetic variability of the released stock was maintained in the natural environment. Future broodstock management, breeding designs, and family contribution equalization of the offspring to be released will be required in this rare species to avoid unintended genetic differentiation between the wild population and the hatchery broodstock.     

The Potential for the Restoration of Marine Ornamental Fish Populations Through Hatchery Releases

Populations of tropical and subtropical marine fish are being depleted worldwide to supply increasing demands of the aquarium industry and fresh seafood market. Overfishing and destructive harvest techniques have left some marine fish populations virtually extirpated in a number of primarily underdeveloped countries. In situations where only small remnant populations and significantly degraded habitat remain, population recovery even under the complete absence of collection will be slow, with the high potential for population loss due to natural environmental and recruitment variability. Stock enhancement, supplementing natural recruitment with hatchery produced fry, has the potential to significantly increase the rate of population recovery while maintaining population vigor.Stock enhancement research on Pacific threadfin has demonstrated measurable positive impacts on recreational and commercial fisheries for this species in experimental scale releases; similar successes can be expected for enhancement efforts directed toward species of ornamental value. The major technological barrier to ornamental fish enhancement, the development of appropriate culture capabilities, is being addressed in research directed to the commercial production of fish for the aquarium trade.     

海洋牧场生态系统稳定性及其对干扰的响应—研究现状、问题及建议

海洋牧场建设是实现我国近海渔业资源恢复、生态系统和谐发展与蓝碳增汇的重要途径。近年来,在快速发展的同时也面临着诸多问题与挑战,极大制约了产业的健康发展。在海洋牧场建设过程中,关于生境营造和资源增殖的基础理论薄弱,对其生态系统稳定性与抗干扰能力认识不清,尤其对小尺度海洋牧场生态系统的结构及其功能实现过程,以及生态承载力知之甚少。亟需针对其人工鱼礁等生境营造的环境效应和增殖放流的资源补充效应开展理论印证和定量研究,以充分认识这些人为扰动的双重性。本文查阅了相关文献90余篇,简要回顾了国内外关于人工鱼礁生境营造的水动力环境特征、生源要素迁移过程、生物群落构建机制和局地生态系统稳定性评价等方面的研究进展。强调了小尺度海洋牧场生态系统结构的复杂性与动态性,重点关注了鱼礁群布局对牧场海域水动力环境、沉积物和生源要素演变的影响,以及在增殖放流等人为扰动下生物群落的物种共存机制。围绕海洋牧场生态系统稳定性与抗干扰能力等关键问题,从水动力驱动、生源要素表征、生物群落重建及生态系统健康等4个方面探讨了目前研究的不足与发展方向,以为海洋牧场人工鱼礁、海藻床等生境营造以及资源修复模式优化提供参考。     

Forecasting the genetic influences of red drum stock enhancement in South Carolina

The South Carolina Department of Natural Resources (SCDNR) began stocking red drum, Sciaenops ocellatus (Linnaeus), in 1989 to augment the abundance of juveniles available for recreational harvest in South Carolina estuaries. While stock enhancement can help supplement wild populations under high fishing pressure, releasing hatchery‐raised fish into the wild also presents the risk of decreased genetic diversity. An individual‐based model (IBM) was developed to forecast the genetic influences of stocking on the wild spawning population to inform responsible stocking strategies. Model results indicated the SCDNR red drum stock enhancement programme should maintain mean contributions of stocked fish no greater than 30% per year class over a 45‐year stocking period, coupled with at least 10 effective breeders in the hatchery replaced annually, to maintain current levels of genetic diversity estimated in the wild population. The IBM is a useful tool for hatchery managers to guide responsible stock enhancement.     

Identification of differential broodstock contribution affecting genetic variability in hatchery stocks of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)

Supportive breeding of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is commonly employed to maintain numbers of fish where the species has become locally endangered. Increasingly, one of the main aims of population management is the preservation of natural genetic diversity. If the stocks employed in supportive breeding exhibit reduced variation they can alter the natural pattern of genetic variation observed in wild populations. In northern Spain, wild adult salmon are caught every year from local rivers and artificially crossed in order to create supportive stocks. The offspring are hatchery reared until the juvenile stage, then released into the same river where their parents were caught. In the current study, our findings demonstrate that although adult broodstock exhibit a pattern of variation similar to the wild populations, variability at microsatellite loci was drastically reduced in the juveniles released into one of three rivers analyzed. The contribution of broodstock to this juvenile stock was examined by pedigree analysis. A restricted number of females contributing to the hatchery stock was identified as the main cause of loss in genetic variation, possibly due to overmaturity of some multi-sea-winter females. We suggest that better monitoring and control of parental contribution will help in solving the problem of loss of genetic diversity in hatchery populations.     

Impacts of hatchery release on genetic structure of rock carp <Emphasis Type="Italic">Procypris rabaudi</Emphasis> in the upper Yangtze River,China

Rock carp Procypris rabaudi is a vulnerable endemic fish in the upper Yangtze River. Hatchery release has been carried out as a major stock enhancement strategy for this species. Ten microsatellite loci were chosen to compare genetic variation between one wild population and two hatchery groups to evaluate the potential impacts of hatchery release on the genetic structure of the wild population. Two different models indicated strong evidence of recent bottlenecks in all groups. The hatchery groups were lower in the mean number of alleles per locus, allelic richness, and allelic diversity compared with the wild population. The 80% membership coefficient indicated that 14% of the wild fish could be assigned as hybrids of wild and hatchery fish. Our results suggested that hatchery release will further reduce the natural genetic diversity in the wild population, change the genetic structure of the rock carp population, and may not benefit restoration of this vulnerable fish species.     

人工增殖放流技术的探讨

渔业资源增殖放流是指对野生鱼、虾、蟹和贝类等进行人工繁殖、养殖或捕捞天然苗种在人工条件下培育后,释放到渔业资源出现衰退的天然水域中,使其自然种群得以恢复的一种方法。增殖放流的目的在于保护濒危物种、增加渔业资源产量和修复生态环境,还具有培养渔民环保意识和增加渔民收入等多方面的重要意义。本文从苗种来源、标记方法、放流策略和效果评价四个方面总结了国内外增殖放流的技术,以期为今后的放流工作提供借鉴和参考。     

Stock enhancement programme for black sea bream, Acanthopagrus schlegelii (Bleeker), in Hiroshima Bay, Japan: a review

This paper reviews the stock enhancement programme for black sea bream ( Acanthopagrus schlegelii ) in Hiroshima Bay. This bay is one of the biggest production areas for black sea bream in Japan, accounting for about 10% of the total catch of the species in this country in 2004. After intensive fishing pressure caused a drastic decline in the catch of the species in this bay in the 1970s, a stock enhancement programme was conducted in its northern part since 1982 to restore the depleted population. The number of black sea bream juveniles released in 1996 surpassed 9 million, representing the third main species stocked in Japan. Almost 1.4 million of these juveniles were released into Hiroshima Bay. The fast acclimatization of hatchery-reared juveniles released into the bay may have contributed to the recovery of landings in the late 1980s and 1990s. However, this recovery was accompanied by a reduction in the market price of black sea bream. Further studies to assess the effectiveness of the stock enhancement programme as well as the carrying capacity of Hiroshima Bay to maintain the stock of black sea bream at a stable, healthy level are desirable. The necessity of evaluating the secondary effects derived from using a reduced number of breeders as well as finding new markets are suggested.     

发展中国南海热带岛礁海洋牧场——机遇、现状与展望

广阔的南海热带海域拥有得天独厚的岛礁资源与环境优势,具有巨大的开发利用潜力。近年来,在国家"海洋强国"战略的提出与稳步践行的背景之下,加快南海岛礁渔业资源的保护与可持续利用已迫在眉睫。现代海洋牧场是集生境修复、资源养护、休闲渔业和景观生态于一体的渔业生产新业态,真正实现了海洋经济发展和海洋生态环境保护并重,但目前南海热带岛礁海洋牧场建设仍严重滞后。充分利用南海热带岛礁海域的资源与环境优势,发展热带海洋牧场可以有力振兴岛礁经济、保护与合理开发岛礁资源,同时也是维护南海海洋权益、实践"海洋强国"战略的有力举措。本文论述了南海热带岛礁海域开展海洋牧场建设的优势,包括政策优势、自然地理优势、资源优势和产业经济优势等;提出南海热带岛礁海洋牧场的适宜建设模式,主要包括资源养护与增殖型海洋牧场和休闲旅游型海洋牧场;综述了广东、广西和海南省在热带近岸和岛礁海洋牧场建设方面的进展;阐述了热带岛礁牧场建设面临的困难和风险,包括气候与自然灾害、生物敌害、基础设施落后、海域使用权审批严格等问题;基于对问题的分析,提出了相关的对策与建议,包括科学选址、优化设施设计与投放方案、研发敌害应对技术、提升自动化信息化运营管理能力、创新牧场投资与运行模式、加大政府政策支持与扶持力度等,相关建议以期为未来南海热带岛礁海洋牧场建设提供策略支持。     

The future of stock enhancements: lessons for hatchery practice from conservation biology

The world's fish species are under threat from habitat degradation and over‐exploitation. In many instances, attempts to bolster stocks have been made by rearing fish in hatcheries and releasing them into the wild. Fisheries restocking programmes have primarily headed these attempts. However, a substantial number of endangered species recovery programmes also rely on the release of hatchery‐reared individuals to ensure long‐term population viability. Fisheries scientists have known about the behavioural deficits displayed by hatchery‐reared fish and the resultant poor survival rates in the wild for over a century. Whilst there remain considerable gaps in our knowledge about the exact causes of post‐release mortality, or their relative contributions, it is clear that significant improvements could be made by rethinking the ways in which hatchery fish are reared, prepared for release and eventually liberated. We emphasize that the focus of fisheries research must now shift from husbandry to improving post‐release behavioural performance. In this paper we take a leaf out of the conservation biology literature, paying particular attention to the recent developments in reintroduction biology. Conservation reintroduction techniques including environmental enrichment, life‐skills training, and soft release protocols are reviewed and we reflect on their application to fisheries restocking programmes. It emerges that many of the methods examined could be implemented by hatcheries with relative ease and could potentially provide large increases in the probability of survival of hatchery‐reared fish. Several of the necessary measures need not be time‐consuming or expensive and many could be applied at the hatchery level without any further experimentation.     

Use of Microsatellite DNA Profiling to Identify Japanese Flounder,Paralichthys olivaceus of Hatchery Origin

Japanese flounder, Paralichthys olivaceus, is an economically important marine fish species in Asia. A suite of 18 microsatellite markers chosen from published genetic linkage maps was used to carry out parentage assignments of 188 hatchery‐reared juveniles from a small number of breeders. The probabilities of exclusion for the 18 microsatellite markers were 0.604–0.913, and the effectiveness of combined probability of exclusion reached 100% when using the eight microsatellite markers with higher Excl 1 probabilities. The cultured and wild stocks (WSs) were differentiated in a release‐recapture population based on these markers. Of the 321 recaptured offspring, 28.34% were assigned to their parental pairs in our broodstock, whereas the remaining offspring could not be traced back to a possible sire or dam. Significant reduction in genetic diversity of the cultured stock (CS) had not been found compared with that of the WS. The results suggest that CSs released into the wild will not adversely affect the genetic structure of natural populations. Our results demonstrate that these markers provide an efficient tool for parentage assignments and genetic analysis of Japanese flounder.     

我国海洋牧场建设回顾与展望

海洋牧场是基于海洋生态学原理和现代海洋工程技术,充分利用自然生产力,在特定海域科学培育和管理渔业资源而形成的人工渔场。海洋牧场的特点包括以增加渔业资源量为目的、具有明确的边界和权属、苗种主要来源于人工育苗或驯化、通过放流或移植进入自然海域、主要以天然饵料为食和对资源实施科学管理等。早在1965年,我国学者曾呈奎先生就原创性地提出在海洋中通过人工控制种植或养殖海洋生物,建设"牧场"的理念。上世纪八十年代以来,我国海洋牧场经历了从增殖放流、人工鱼礁建设到系统化的海洋牧场发展过程,在取得巨大成就的同时,也面临着海洋牧场的涵义应用过于宽泛、缺乏统筹规划和科学论证、忽视海洋牧场生态作用以及忽视项目评估和系统管理等问题。展望未来,我国的海洋牧场建设应在"生态优先、陆海统筹、三产贯通、四化同步、创新跨越"的发展理念指导下,加强海洋牧场建设的宏观引导、推动海洋牧场体系化建设、实施海洋牧场企业化运营,在获得经济效益的同时,实现产业繁荣和保持健康生态系统的和谐统一。     

Pedigree analysis of recaptured fish in the stock enhancement program of spotted halibut Verasper variegatus

ABSTRACT:   Spotted halibut Verasper variegatus hatchery juveniles produced in 2002 were genotyped using three microsatellite DNA markers (msDNA) and then released into natural waters. Subsequently, recaptured individuals were examined using msDNA. In order to evaluate the effectiveness of the stock enhancement program, from the genetic point of view, a pairwise F _ST test was implemented to estimate the genetic divergence between the wild captive broodstock, the hatchery offspring and the recaptured samples. The analysis showed significant differentiation between the broodstock and recaptured samples. Pedigree determination using msDNA was used to calculate the effective population size of the recaptured stock, which was found to be very low ( N _e ≈ 8). Equal family survivability was observed between the two recaptured stocks, but not between the released and recaptured stock. The number of identified families was higher and more equalized in the hatchery offspring compared to the recaptured samples, where the number of families declined. This fact was caused by an unequal family survivability just before or just after release. Separately, the number of contributing parents to the hatchery offspring was lower than the broodstock census number. Consequently, these two facts caused the genetic divergence of the recaptured stock from the broodstock.     

Antipredator responses to overhead fright stimuli in hatchery-reared and wild European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) juveniles

In this study, shoals of hatchery‐reared and wild sea bass juveniles (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) were tested for differences in their antipredator responses towards a visual (shadow) and a mechanical (dummy bill) overhead stimulus. Two behavioural variables – distance from the bottom and freezing duration – were measured during post‐stimulus phases of each test and compared between wild and hatchery‐reared shoals, composed of 10 juveniles each. The results showed that in both hatchery‐reared and wild juveniles, stimulus exposure elicited a significant decrease in the mean shoal distance from the bottom. Similarly, individuals from both groups engaged a freezing reaction, but the mean freezing duration was significantly higher in wild‐ than in hatchery‐reared juveniles. Results are discussed in the light of their relevance for the enhancement of restocking programmes.     

象山港黄姑鱼增殖放流效果评估及增殖群体利用方式优化

以回捕渔获重量和对繁殖群体的补充能力为评价指标,借助标志放流-回捕实验,利用模型模拟分析方法,定量评估浙江象山港黄姑鱼(Nibea albiflora)的增殖放流效果;同时,结合其增殖目标定位,探索构建生态高效的增殖群体利用方式。研究结果表明,象山港黄姑鱼增殖群体的捕捞死亡系数为1.31,在该捕捞强度下,11055尾增殖放流鱼苗可产生737 kg回捕渔获收益,同时还向增殖水域补充了554尾初次性成熟个体,增殖放流活动在一定程度上起到了修复象山港黄姑鱼资源、促进渔民增产增收的效果。结果表明,捕捞强度过大是制约象山港黄姑鱼增殖放流功效发挥的重要因素,捕捞死亡系数应降至0.46,同批次黄姑鱼增殖放流所能提供的回捕渔获重量和性成熟个体尾数可分别较现行捕捞强度提升41.49%和326.90%。综上述,象山港黄姑鱼增殖放流的生态和经济功效较为显著,合理降低对增殖群体的捕捞强度是进一步提升其增殖放流效果的必要措施。     

The “Nemo Effect”: Perception and reality of Finding Nemo's impact on marine aquarium fisheries

Global audiences are increasingly being exposed to digital media with fictitious storylines that draw on animal characters involuntarily entering wildlife trades . An understudied problem in wildlife trade is the potential for motion pictures to influence their audience's desire to become more acquainted, often via acquisition, with animals portrayed in the films. The 2003 Disney motion picture Finding Nemo connected audiences with a wildlife trade already commonplace: the marine aquarium trade. In this trade, fisheries supply live coral reef organisms to millions of public and private aquaria worldwide. Here, we examine the perception and reality of Finding Nemo's impact (coined the “Nemo Effect”) on the fisheries of the species complex representing the film's primary protagonist “Nemo” (Amphiprion ocellaris/percula). Import and export figures show little evidence for fan‐based purchases of wild‐caught fish immediately (within 1.5 years of release) following the film. We argue that the perceived impact on these species, driven by popular media with an emotive but scientifically uninformed approach to conserving coral reef ecosystems, can be more damaging to the cause of conservation than helpful. This perspective is intended to encourage marine aquarium trade stakeholders to consider the ecological and social repercussions of both media driven consumption and opposition to the trade. Using lessons learned from Finding Nemo, we discuss the likely impacts the sequel, Finding Dory, will have on wild populations of its protagonist “Dory” (Paracanthurus hepatus).     

Increased harvest of anadromous hatchery steelhead,Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), through return timing manipulation

Harvest hatchery programmes serve to augment fisheries but should also minimise impacts to wild populations. In an experiment to increase harvest in an anadromous hatchery steelhead, Oncorhynchus mykiss (Walbaum), terminal river fishery, a new hatchery strain, was created using selective breeding of early arriving adults to the river. First‐generation progeny of the new early arriving strain were reared and released over 4 years concurrent with releases of the standard hatchery strain. This study compares adult return timing, terminal harvest and straying behaviour of progeny of the early arriving and standard hatchery strains. The new strain migrated towards the terminal river fishery earlier, they were harvested earlier in the eight‐month fishing season and their overall harvest was 17% greater, but 7.7% of the new strain strayed to other rivers compared to 5.0% of the standard strain. Selective breeding to match adult return timing with fishing effort may help bolster harvest, but a paired release evaluation, such as was conducted in this study, would be prudent before switching all hatchery production to a selectively bred strain.