Zero Deforestation Zones: The Case for Linking Deforestation-Free Supply Chain Initiatives and Jurisdictional REDD+

The Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) presents the idea of Zero Deforestation Zones (ZDZs) as a solution to implement private sector deforestation-free supply chain commitments by leveraging synergies between Jurisdictional REDD+, private sector initiatives, and governmental laws and regulations. Companies would source commodities that meet their deforestation commitments from jurisdictions implementing REDD+ programs, government monitoring systems, and functioning private sector initiatives. A definition of “zero deforestation” would be created through a multistakeholder process considering a number of different elements. ZDZs would align incentives between actors, generating multiple benefits for companies, governments, and local communities—including reduced costs of monitoring deforestation, low-risk areas for long-term investment, increased legal compliance, and conflict resolution between companies and local communities. Environmental integrity would also be improved because a larger area of forest would be protected, reducing risks of leakage and nonpermanence.     

基于社区的监测在避免毁林机制中的作用

在发展中国家减少森林砍伐和退化、增加森林碳储存和开展森林可持续经营(REDD+), 意味着各国必须周期性、系统性地开展森林清查, 以量化森林碳储量的变化。目前的遥感技术可以经济合算地监测森林砍伐, 但监测森林退化仍然比较困难, 测量森林退化成为实施REDD+的一个主要挑战。基于社区的森林清查能够帮助解决这一问题。文中概述社区型监测在REDD+背景下的作用, 比较社区型监测与专业技术人员开展森林清查的成本和数据可靠性, 分析社区型监测的优缺点, 认为需要进一步研究当地社区监测的准确性, 完善实地操作规程, 尽量利用社区型监测的优势实现REDD+。     

REDD+机制各缔约方观点总结分析及我国对策建议

减少发展中国家毁林及森林退化引起的温室气体排放, 森林保护、可持续森林管理和增加森林碳储量(REDD+)在减缓气候变化行动中的作用越来越明显, 已经成为《联合国气候变化框架公约》谈判的重要议题。近年来各缔约方针对方法学、融资机制和REDD+与清洁发展机制(CDM)关系的谈判争论越来越激烈。在《联合国气候变化框架公约》第18次缔约方会议(COP18)期间, 对REDD+议题提出了新的要求, 除了有关于逐步建立国家水平森林参考排放水平或参考水平等有关方法学的技术与科学问题外, 基金在融资机制中的作用和非碳效益支付议题也有待进行深入的磋商。文中基于对各缔约方提案的分析结果和REDD+示范项目开展情况, 结合我国森林资源现状, 分析了REDD+机制对我国可能产生的影响并提出后续谈判期的对策建议。     

Landscape-scale variation in the structure and biomass of the hill dipterocarp forest of Sumatra: Implications for carbon stock assessments

One of the first steps in estimating the potential for reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) initiatives is the proper estimation of the carbon components. There are still considerable uncertainties about carbon stocks in tropical rain forest, coming essentially from poor knowledge of the quantity and spatial distribution of forest biomass at the landscape level.     

How Can We Incentivize Tropical Forest Restoration?

International policy incentives to promote tropical forest restoration, community forestry, and payments for environmental services have not been widely adopted at scale. It is possible that reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation and related activities (REDD+) could be a policy tool for encouraging larger scale restoration efforts in the tropics. Although there are political challenges to ensuring the inclusion of restoration activities in REDD+, its use might facilitate the forest transition in tropical countries, reduce carbon dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere, and garner political support for these policies and approaches.     

拉美国家参与全球森林治理的3种模式

随着对全球变暖和气候变化的担忧和关注在国际政策辩论中占据越来越重要的地位,全球对森林治理问题的兴趣和关注也在日益增长。森林已被定位为具有全球价值的碳库,对碳封存和缓解气候变暖具有重要作用。在这种背景下,拉丁美洲的森林治理在应对气候变化方面被视为具有全球重要性。文中以REDD为分析视角,从分阶段的方式出发,将拉美国家参与全球森林治理的模式分为以巴西为代表的自信模式、以哥伦比亚和哥斯达黎加为代表的包容模式和以玻利维亚为代表的抗拒模式3种;通过分析认为,拉美国家有最终实现减少森林砍伐和森林退化的巨大潜力以及利用其丰富的森林资源缓解气候变化的相应能力,但需要坚定森林治理和改革的决心并保证REDD政策实施的持续性。     

Analysis of three crucial elements of REDD+ in participatory forest management

Abstract

It is claimed that reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) could contribute to sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks as well as having the potential to deliver significant social and environmental co-benefits (+). From the perspectives of local factors and broader governance issues related to REDD+, this study aims to explore findings related to three crucial elements, commitment, transparency and continuity, implemented jointly with participatory forest management in Tanzania in the case of the REDD+ mechanism. This paper argues that commitment and transparent systems are needed at village level, as well as at the various levels of forest governance and among the donors, in order for REDD+ benefits to be shared equitably at the REDD+ project level. Any REDD+ project should include safeguards that recognise and protect the continuity of multipurpose functions of the forest to local people and avoid dependence on external payments.     

国外森林碳融资模式比较及其对我国的启示

林业在应对气候变化方面的作用和地位越来越为各国和国际社会所重视。与其他缓解气候变化的选择相比, 森林碳减排的成本相对较低。但是, 资金缺口目前已成为REDD和REDD+面临的主要挑战之一, 也成为各国政府、学术界和企业界共同关注的焦点。文中对国外森林碳融资模式进行归纳分析, 指出其发展趋势, 提出国外实践对我国发展森林碳融资的借鉴意义。     

The parallel materialization of REDD + implementation discourses in Brazil

The concept of Reducing Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) dominates international debates on the role of forests in climate change mitigation, but concrete implementation remains a challenge. In contrast to this general trend, Brazil emerged as a noteworthy exception due to the widespread implementation of major REDD+ initiatives. This research paper aims at understanding the implementation of REDD+ in Brazil from a discursive perspective. The analysis identifies two discourses that are guiding the implementation of REDD+ in different ways. On the one hand, advocates of a sustainable development discourse conceive REDD+ as a centralized mechanism to foster pre-existing deforestation control and sustainable economic activities through centralized mechanisms such as the Amazon Fund. On the other hand, a number of disconnected actors follow a carbon commodification discourse inspired by the idea of neoliberal conservation and create REDD+ projects to provide carbon offset to voluntary markets. The analysis of these discourses reveal that implementation processes do not rely on discursive convergence, but rather culminate in the parallel development and implementation of distinct REDD+ discourses that are at the same time competing, coexisting and collaborating on different levels.     

Mitigating Climate Change Through Small-Scale Forestry in the USA: Opportunities and Challenges

Forest management for carbon sequestration is a low-cost, low-technology, relatively easy way to help mitigate global climate change that can be adopted now while additional long-term solutions are developed. Carbon-oriented management of forests also offers forest owners an opportunity to obtain a new source of income, and commonly has environmental co-benefits. The USA is developing climate change policy that recognizes forestry as a source of offsets in carbon markets, and the emissions trading programs and standards that have developed to date offer opportunities for afforestation, reforestation, reduced emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and improved forest management projects. Private forest owners are key players in carbon markets because they own over half of the forest land in the USA and carbon offsetting from public forest land is rare. However, a number of environmental, economic, and social constraints currently limit carbon market participation by forest owners. Key issues include: the low price of carbon and high cost of market entry; whether small landowners can gain market access; how to meet requirements such as management plans and certification; and whether managing for carbon is consistent with other forest management goals. This paper provides an overview of current and emerging opportunities for family forest owners to contribute to climate change mitigation in the USA, and explores ways of overcoming some of the challenges so that they can take advantage of these opportunities.     

早期涉林项目留给减少森林砍伐和退化机制的经验与教训

减少毁林和森林退化导致的排放, 增加森林碳储量(REDD+)将成为2012年后最具成本效益的一个缓解气候变化的机制。为了避免REDD+项目的设计和实施重蹈早期涉林项目的覆辙, 有必要回顾REDD+之前的涉林政策和涉林项目的问题。早期涉林倡议案、森林认证、环境服务报偿(PES)、综合保护与发展项目(ICDPs)中的经验教训, 对于REDD+特别有参考价值。REDD+的实施需要依赖各国已经同意的倡议, 促进主权国家履行现有承诺, 利用公共权力与私人权力的协同增效作用来产生环保效应。在早期碳项目中, 普遍缺乏可信的反事实构建, 碳计量可靠性上也存在问题。在综合保护与发展项目的实施中, 如何处理好保护与发展的关系, 如何为生态系统服务寻找买家和争取长期的金融支持, 是项目实施成功的主要影响因素。REDD+在设计上就应该考虑到这些问题, 建立在各种经验教训之上的REDD+项目设计和实施应该更加有效和公平。     

International Finance for REDD+ Within the Context of Conservation Financing Instruments

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and forest Degradation (REDD+) is a conservation finance instrument based on the payments for ecosystem services model, wherein governments, private landowners, concession holders, and/or communities are compensated for undertaking activities which mitigate greenhouse gas emissions from forest use and land use change. This article reviews the numerous sources for REDD+ finance within the context of total global conservation finance. In 2013, there were approximately 47 REDD+ projects conserving nearly 20 million ha with a total transacted value in carbon offset credits estimated to be US$98.8 million. Scaling up conservation financing instruments, particularly REDD+, is critical to halting tropical deforestation and reversing the trend of global climate change. Although the bulk of REDD+ financing, especially for capacity building efforts, comes from public sector channels, this article discusses five opportunities for private sector firms to support REDD+: a firm can develop their own project; a firm can donate unrestricted funds to a nonprofit organization; a firm can invest in a for-profit firm; a firm can choose to support a particular REDD+ project; or a firm can invest into a dedicated fund.     

减少毁林和森林退化引起的排放:一个综述视角的分析

减少因毁林和森林退化引起的温室气体排放(REDD)对控制和减缓全球气候变暖具有重要作用。UNFCCC第11次缔约国会议将REDD议题列入气候谈判议程, 希望REDD成为2012年后承诺期减缓气候变化的重要措施之一。文中在对国际社会关于REDD的谈判进展和指导原则等进行概述的基础上, 探讨了当前国际社会关注的REDD的焦点问题, 分析了这些焦点问题的现状及其可能的发展趋势, 并据此提出讨论和建议。     

A Small-Scale Forestry Perspective on Constraints to Including REDD in International Carbon Markets

In this article the authors contend that the constraints to including reduced emissions from avoided tropical forest deforestation and degradation in international carbon markets stem from problems associated with: (1) correctly measuring emissions savings from avoided tropical forest deforestation and degradation; (2) the permanence and ‘leakage’ of tropical forest conservation regimes; (3) ensuring economic incentives for the avoidance of tropical forest deforestation and degradation are sufficiently effective; (4) the exclusion of reduced emissions from avoided tropical forest deforestation and degradation from critical international climate change policy agreements; and (5) the behaviour of investors in carbon markets. Case analysis of the ‘Emissions Biodiversity Exchange Project for the 21st Century’ (EBEX21) program of Landcare Research New Zealand is used to examine how a government-supported market-based forest conservation initiative can be used to address these constraints, particularly in the context of small-scale forestry conservation.     

从REDD+到可持续森林管理的国际法律立场及策略——以《巴黎气候协议》为背景

鉴于REDD+国际法律机制面临的理论和实践困境,有关林业碳汇的国际法律机制有从REDD+向可持续森林管理过渡的趋势。文中提出,必须用国际规则和协议的方式从碳交易、融资方式、利益攸关方参与、生物多样性保护4个方面对可持续森林管理加以规制,我国应尽快完善与国际林业谈判相适应的林业碳汇法律机制。     

REDD+ as a Vehicle for Community-Based Forest Management? Critical Insights from Vietnam

Small-scale Forestry - Both the reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation program (REDD+) and community-based forest management (CBFM) aim to combat forest degradation and...     

The potential of REDD+ for carbon sequestration in tropical forests: Supply curves for carbon storage for Kalimantan,Indonesia

We study the potential of tropical multi-age multi-species forests for sequestering carbon in response to financial incentives from REDD+. Following existing carbon crediting schemes, the use of reduced impact logging techniques (RIL) allows a forest manager to apply for carbon credits whereas conventional logging (CL) does not. This paper is the first to develop a Hartman model with selective cutting in this setting that takes additionality of carbon sequestration explicitly into account. We apply the model using data for Kalimantan, Indonesia, for both private and government forest managers. The latter have a lower discount rate and are exempt from taxes. RIL leads to less damages on the residual stand than CL and has lower variable but higher fixed costs. We find that a system of carbon credits through REDD+ can increase carbon stored per hectare by 15.8% if the forest is privately managed and by 22% under government management if the carbon price equals the average 2015 price in the European Union's Emission Trading Scheme. Interestingly, awarding carbon credits to carbon stored in end-use wood products does not increase the amount of carbon stored, nor Land Expectation Value.     

A reality check on the landscape approach to REDD+: Lessons from Latin America

Developing and institutionalizing cross-sectoral approaches to sustainable land use remains a crucial, yet politically contested, objective in global sustainability governance. There is a widely acknowledged need for more integrated approaches to sustainable land use that reconcile multiple landscape functions, sectors and stakeholders. However, this faces a number of challenges in practice, including the lack of policy coherence and institutional conflicts across agricultural and forest sectors. In this context, the global climate change mitigation mechanism of “reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation” (REDD+) has been flagged as a unique opportunity to stimulate the development and institutionalization of more integrated, “landscape” approaches to sustainable land use. In this article, we provide a reality check for the prospects of REDD+ to deliver on this promise, through analyzing three pioneer cases of REDD+ development and implementation in Brazil, Ecuador, and Mexico. We analyze how REDD+ has operated in each of these three contexts, based on field work, key-informant interviews, and analysis of primary and secondary documents. Our findings suggest that REDD+ has stimulated development of “niche” sustainable land-use investments in each case, which aim to integrate forest conservation and agricultural development goals, but has done so while competing with business-as-usual incentives. We conclude that national and international political commitment to more integrated and sustainable land-use approaches is a precondition for, rather than a result of, transformative REDD+ interventions.     

Agroforestry within REDD+: experiences of an indigenous Emberá community in Panama

Reducing carbon emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+) has become central to efforts to mitigate climate change. Approximately 10 % of the world’s forests are managed by local and indigenous peoples. Agroforestry may provide these communities with a means to engage in carbon offsetting initiatives without forfeiting access to, or benefits from, forests. Here, we present an analysis of social and ecological data from a four-year-old, reforestation-based carbon-offset project on the collective lands of Ipetí-Emberá, Panama. Mixed-species agroforests or timber-only plots were established by a subset of community members under voluntary carbon-offset agreements with a private client. We (1) describe how plot carbon accumulation trajectories were related to species composition; (2) determine if established agroforests are likely to meet carbon sequestration targets by the end of the 25-year project period; (3) describe the motivations and experiences of participants who chose to establish agroforests; and (4) compare socio-economics of participants versus non-participants. Our study provides data on early mortality, tree growth and the carbon sequestration capacity of 29 species that are commonly used by small farming households in Latin America and elsewhere. The study highlights strategies for reducing risks associated with agroforestry as a carbon sequestration strategy in the context of carbon offset projects, such as the replanting of dead trees and the establishment of a carbon buffer. We also provide evidence to counter claims that offset projects could amplify inequality in rural communities as participants to agroforestry, when compared to non-participants, were not remarkable in terms of their assets or wealth. Overall, this case study provides an encouraging example of how agroforestry may help forest communities engage with REDD+ in a way that benefits both their livelihoods and the global climate change agenda.     

Vulnerability of Community-Based Forest Management to Climate Variability and Extremes: Emerging Insights on the Contribution of REDD+

Climate change spurs havoc on social-ecological system. People and places vulnerable to climate change have been the focus of many discussions. However, in the forestry sector, limited studies have been conducted that link human vulnerability to recent initiatives, such as reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation or REDD+, especially in highly vulnerable countries. Using case studies from the Philippines, this paper focuses on the vulnerability of two community-based forest management (CBFM) organizations, with and without REDD+ readiness intervention, to show the impacts of climate variability and extremes. Two balance-weighted approaches, the livelihood vulnerability index and the IPCC-framework, were used in the vulnerability assessments. Results revealed high vulnerability of both CBFM organizations, although Malitbog Upland Developers for Sustainable Association (MUDSA) livelihood vulnerability is largely aggravated by its exposure to disaster, climate variability and extremes, accessibility to health facilities and water supply. The long history of CBFM implementation in both organizations have minimal contribution in enhancing the adaptive capacity of members to cope with and adapt to climate change impacts. REDD+ (readiness), does not insure reduced vulnerability to climate change, unless sustainable livelihood is achieved. As the State controls forest resources, the rights of CBFM-organizations to commercially benefit from these resources are limited, a disincentive to the development of new and viable development programs in CBFM areas, such as REDD+. This also constrains the achievement of climate resiliency.