Re-Visiting Calcium Concentration and Distribution in Apple Fruit (Malus domestica Borkh.)

Distribution of calcium in the apple has been quantified using mineral analyses of fruit sections during the mid-1900s by various researchers. Most of the work was done either at harvest, or after storage. We used Proton-induced X-ray spectrometry (PIXE) and Scanning Electron Microscopy to correlate Ca distribution in apples to results obtained from mineral analyses (MA). For fruit at harvest transverse distribution of Ca in ‘Braeburn’ apples determined by PIXE confirmed similar analyses with MA. It was not possible to establish a significant relationship between the total Ca concentration determined by PIXE and soluble Ca concentration from MA in this paper, either at harvest, or 80 days after full bloom (dafb). A significant correlation was found between PIXE and SEM results 80 dafb.     

Isolation of high-quality RNA from apple (Malus domestica) fruit

It is difficult to isolate sufficient quantities of high-quality RNA from apple fruit. An abundance of polyphenolic compounds and polysaccharides and a relatively low concentration of RNA in the fruit tissue create conditions that hamper RNA isolation when standard techniques are used. We have developed two RNA isolation methods that include an initial homogenization and extraction with acetone or ethanol. These in turn remove the interfering compounds and precipitate the protein and nucleic acids for subsequent RNA extraction. The quality of RNA was satisfactory with both acetone and ethanol preparations; however, the acetone powder produced consistently higher quantities of RNA.     

Lower crop load for Cv. Jonagold apples (Malus x domestica Borkh.) increases polyphenol content and fruit quality

The influence of crop load on fruit quality was investigated on 7-year-old slender spindle cv. Jonagold/M.9 apple trees. In mid June five different crop loads per tree were prepared by reducing the fruit number to average 30, 59, 104, 123, and 157 fruits per crown. The fruit from low-cropping trees had more red blush, a higher percentage of soluble solids in fruit flesh, and better flesh firmness in comparison to fruit from high-cropping trees. As the crop load decreased, the concentration of all phenolic compounds in the fruit samples (cortex plus skin) increased; concentrations of the most important individual fruit phenolics were also higher. When crop load fell from 157 to 30 fruits per crown, total polyphenols increased from an average of 1300 to 1680 mg/kg of fruit fresh weight (FW) (+29%), low molecular weight polyphenols increased from 1140 to 1570 mg/kg of FW (+38%), and high molecular weight polyphenols increased from 1740 to 2070 mg/kg of FW (+19%). The average increases in single polyphenols were even greater: chlorogenic acid (+82%); 4'-p-coumaroylquinic acid (+22%); catechin (+178%); and epicatechin (+71%). Ascorbic acid was not significantly dependent on crop load.     

施肥对平邑甜茶根际微生物的影响

以二年生苹果砧木平邑甜茶实生苗为试材,研究施氮、有机肥及其组合对根际微生物类群的短期影响及其与果树根系生长状况的关系。结果表明,不同微生物类群对施肥反应不同,氮肥、有机肥处理明显增加除根际固氮菌外其他微生物类群的数量。高浓度氮肥（N 500 mg/kg）处理对细菌、放线菌、纤维素分解菌数量产生一定抑制作用,而3%和6%有机肥能缓解高浓度氮肥对根际微生物的抑制作用;3%有机肥和N 200 mg/kg氮肥处理可达到较好的缓解效果。细菌、真菌、氨化细菌和硝化细菌数量与生长根和吸收根生物量之间显著正相关;固氮菌则仅与吸收根生物量显著负相关;而纤维素分解菌与根系生物量的相关关系不显著。细菌和纤维素分解菌数量与根系呼吸显著正相关;而真菌、固氮菌、氨化细菌和硝化细菌与根系呼吸的相关性不显著。     

Transgenic apple (Malus x domestica) shoot showing low browning potential

Transgenic apple shoots were prepared from leaf disks by using Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying the kanamycin (KM) resistance gene and antisense polyphenol oxidase (PPO) DNA. Four transgenic apple lines that grew on the medium containing 50 microgram/mL KM were obtained. They contained the KM resistance gene and grew stably on the medium for >3 years. Two transgenic shoot lines containing antisense PPO DNA in which PPO activity was repressed showed a lower browning potential than a control shoot.     

Polyphenol profiles of French cider apple varieties (Malus domestica sp.)

The cortex of 14 French apple varieties (12 cider and 2 juice varieties), one English cider variety, and one dessert apple (i.e., Golden Delicious) were studied for their polyphenol composition. Total polyphenols were assayed by the Folin-Ciocalteu method, and the precise polyphenolic composition (monomeric catechins, proanthocyanidins, hydroxycinnamic acids, and dihydrochalcones) was obtained by HPLC following thiolysis. ESI-MS and ESI-MS/MS analyses showed that chlorogenic acid and p-coumaroylquinic acid were methylated under the conditions of thiolysis. Depending on the variety, the global polyphenol concentration varied from 1 to 7 g per kilogram of fresh cortex. Cider varieties globally showed a higher polyphenol concentration than the dessert apple Golden Delicious, bitter varieties being the more concentrated. The proportion of the polyphenol classes varied greatly from one cultivar to another. For all varieties, procyanidins were always the predominant class. They were mainly constituted of (-)-epicatechin units with a small proportion of (+)-catechin as a terminal unit. The average degree of polymerization ranged between 4.2 and 7.5 depending upon the variety with an exception for the sharp varieties Guillevic and Avrolles which showed significant concentrations of procyanidins with DPn of 40 and 50, respectively.     

Free galactose concentrations in fresh and stored apples (Malus domestica) and processed apple products

Gas chromatography was used to quantitate free galactose in Braeburn, Fuji, Red Delicious, and Spartan apples during cold storage, after thermal processing of apple slices and in juice produced using clarification and/or liquifaction enzymes. Spartan had significantly higher galactose levels as compared to Red Delicious apples, but changes in galactose in all varieties during 9 months of cold storage were insignificant. Blanching and canning decreased galactose levels, but doubling the thermal processing during canning increased the free galactose concentration detected in plant tissue. An enzymatic liquefaction aid used to prepare apple juice dramatically increased the free galactose content while a clarification aid caused only a slight increase due to its selective action on soluble pectin. These findings provide useful information for dietitians to base diet recommendations for galactosemic patients.     

Variability of the polyphenolic composition of cider apple (Malus domestica) fruits and juices

Five French cider apple varieties were compared on the basis of their detailed polyphenol profile in the cortex and in the juices. Among the factors studied, variety was the most important variability factor in fruits, whereas polyphenol profiles showed an overall stability from one year to another, and a limited decrease of polyphenol concentration was observed during the starch regression period of fruit maturation. In juices, procyanidins remained the preponderant polyphenol class with concentrations up to 2.4 g/L even in centrifuged juices. Compared to the fruits, the average degree of polymerization of procyanidins was significantly reduced in the juice. Centrifugation of the crude juice had only minor effects on the polyphenol composition. For one variety, highly polymerized procyanidins with average degrees of polymerization of 25 were shown to be soluble in the centrifuged juice at a concentration of close to 1.2 g/L. Oxygenation of the juices during processing resulted in a significant decrease of all classes of native polyphenols. Catechins and procyanidins were particularly affected by oxidation, whereas caffeoylquinic acid was partly preserved. The transfer of polyphenols after pressing was maximal for dihydrochalcones and minimal for procyanidins with extraction yield values close to 80 and 30%, respectively.     

苹果SUPERMAN类蛋白家族的基因克隆与生物信息学分析

SUPERMAN 类基因是植物生长发育中的重要转录因子。为了揭示苹果 SUPERMAN 类蛋白家族的生理基因功能,本研究以富士苹果(Malus domestica Borkh.cv. Fuji)为试材,利用 RT-PCR 方法和锚定PCR 方法克隆了 MdLIFa(GenBank 登录号 HM370493)和启动子序列,利用特异引物 PCR 方法克隆了苹果基因组中其余 11 个 SUPERMAN 类基因。12 个基因命名为 MdLIFa/MdLIFb (GenBank 登录号:HQ260429)、MdSUP1a (HQ418477)/MdSUP1b (HQ418478)、MdSUP4 (HQ418475)/MdSUP12 (HQ418476)、MdSUP5a (HQ418469)/MdSUP13b (HQ418470)、MdSUP9a (HQ418473)/MdSUP9b (HQ418474) 和 MdSUP5b(HQ418471)/MdSUP13a(HQ418472),分别位于 11/3、1/1、4/12、5/13、9/ 未知和 5/13 号染色体,每对基因间的同源性均在86%以上。通过基因枪法轰击洋葱(Allium cepa)表皮细胞,基因瞬时表达证明 MdLIFa 定位于细胞核内。MdLIFa 基因启动子序列中含有多个参与花粉发育、根特异性表达、与光诱导和 Dof 单锌指基因家族作用的调控元件等。系统进化分析表明,MdLIFa/b、MdSUP9a/9b 和 MdSUP5a/13b、以及MdSUP1a/b、MdSUP5b/MdSUP13a和 MdSUP4/12 分别聚类为一组,参与植株的形态建成和花器官发育。苹果 12 个 SUPERMAN 类基因成对高度同源,具有生物学功能的多样性,为深入的基因鉴定和遗传转化提供有用信息。     

苹果属山定子柠檬酸合成酶基因(MbCS1)的克隆及表达分析

为了研究不同铁效率基因型苹果砧木铁吸收利用的分子机理,本研究以铁低效基因型山定子(Malus baccata Borkh)为试材,根据实验室从铁高效基因型小金海棠(Malus xiaojinensis)克隆到与铁运输相关的基因柠檬酸合成酶基因(MxCS1)的全长序列设计特异引物,通过RT-PCR方法从山定子cDNA中克隆到柠檬酸合成酶基因CS,基因全长为1422bp,与金冠(Malus domestica Borkh cv.Golden Delicious)、小金海棠中的CS基因具有较高的同源性,将该基因命名为MbCS1(GenBank登录号:JQ898346)。利用生物信息学软件对山定子柠檬酸合成酶基因(MbCS1)进行预测分析,结果显示该基因预测编码473个氨基酸,相对分子量为54.26kD,理论等电点为8.95。亚细胞定位显示MbCS1蛋白定位在细胞膜上。半定量RT-PCR及Real-time PCR分析均表明,正常供铁时,该基因在山定子的根、茎、新叶中都有表达;缺铁处理(EDTA-NaFe,4μmol/L)时,该基因在根、茎和新叶中的表达加强,第9天达到最高值,之后开始下降;但各检测器官中表达增强的程度不同,其中茎中受缺铁诱导表达最明显。与小金海棠中MxCS1基因的表达趋势有明显的差别。本研究为高等植物抗性机理的深入研究以及铁低效资源型砧木资源的改良提供了基础资料。     

Apple (Malus domestica) and tomato (Lycopersicum esculentum) fruits cell-wall hemicelluloses and xyloglucan degradation during Penicillium expansum infection

We characterized the changes in cell-wall hemicellulosic polysaccharides and the hemicellulose-degrading enzymes associated with apple and tomato fruits infected by Penicillium expansum. Our results showed a reduction in the molecular mass of hemicelluloses, with this reduction being particularly notable in the xyloglucan associated with P. expansum infection. The activation of fungal beta-glucanases was also highlighted. Fruit xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase (XTH)-specific activity decreased drastically during the infection process in both apple and tomato fruits. We suggest that XTH reduction during the infection might be related with the fungus attack mechanism. We also suggest that the decrease in activity and the consequent lower xyloglucan endotransglucosylation, together with the increase in endoglucanases, would permit fungal access to the cellulose-xyloglucan network, increase the efficiency of cellulose hydrolysis, and thus facilitate the progress of the fungal infection. The results confirm the importance of hemicellulose degradation in the breakdown of plant cell walls, causing cell-wall loosening, increasing the porosity of the wall, and allowing the colonization of plant tissue.     

小金海棠类黄色条纹蛋白基因(MxYSL5)启动子的克隆与表达

为探明小金海棠(Mdus xiaojinensis)类黄色条纹蛋白基因(MxYSL5)的表达和调控机制,应用Tail-PCR技术从小金海棠中克隆了翻译起始位点上游891 bp的启动子序列.生物信息学分析表明,该启动子片段中存在光响应元件、乙烯应答元件、赤霉素响应元件、TATA-box、CAAT-box等顺式作用元件.以GFP为报告基因,构建了含MxYSL5基因启动子的植物表达载体MxYP5-GFP.将MxYP5-GFP用基因枪法转化洋葱(Allium cepa)表皮细胞,瞬时表达结果表明,该启动子能够驱动GFP在洋葱表皮细胞中的表达,可以用于MxYSL5的表达示踪.     

Diversity of the European indigenous wild apple Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. in the East Ore Mountains (Osterzgebirge), Germany: I. Morphological characterization

Malus sylvestris (L.) Mill. is the only indigenous wild apple species in Europe and recognized as rare and endangered species. An important prerequisite for the preservation of M. sylvestris is the identification of ‘true type’ M. sylvestris individuals because hybrids with cultivated apple could be also occurred. In this study variations among 625 putative M. sylvestris trees originated in the East Ore Mountains were evaluated with 20 selected morphological traits. The importance of these traits concerning the differentiation of ‘true type’ and hybrids of M. sylvestris were determined by statistical analysis. The results demonstrated a strong correlation of individual traits and those contributing mostly to variation of M. sylvestris were detected by the Principal Component Analysis. The relationship of 284 M. sylvestris, 18 M.?×?domestica, M. floribunda 821 and M. robusta 5 individuals were calculated based on the morphological data and presented in a dendrogram. The individuals grouped in two main clusters and 68 hybrids of M. sylvestris were identified. The main result of the morphological data of these hybrids indicates that the grouping is mainly based on the flower and leaf pubescence and less on the fruit size.     

平邑甜茶幼苗生长过程中精氨酸和一氧化氮水平的变化

研究了平邑甜茶幼苗生长过程中根、茎、叶和子叶精氨酸、精氨酸酶、一氧化氮（NO）、一氧化氮合酶（NOS）水平的变化及其与幼苗生长发育的关系。结果表明,精氨酸含量和精氨酸酶活性子叶中最高,且随幼苗生长发育逐渐下降,其次为叶片和茎,根中最低。幼苗生长第5 d的子叶中NO含量及NOS活性均最高,此后迅速下降至较低水平。除子叶外,NO含量和NOS活性在茎中较高,生长第11 d均达到最高,与茎的快速生长相适应;叶片居中,在第17 d达到高峰,与叶片的快速生长有关;根中最低,在第8 d达到最高,与主根的快速生长相对应。这些结果表明,NO在快速生长的器官中含量高,可能与平邑甜茶幼苗各器官的生长发育有关;而子叶中的精氨酸可能是平邑甜茶幼苗早期生长主要的氮素贮藏营养物质之一。     

八棱海棠MdPPO2B基因的克隆及降解苯酚研究

为了探索果树对酚类化合物的修复潜力,从八棱海棠中克隆获得多酚氧化酶基因Md PPO2B,并构建该基因植物超量表达载体,通过转化模式植物拟南芥研究该基因对酚类化合物的修复功能。结果表明,在平板、盆栽、液体3种试验中,不加入苯酚,转基因植株在生长状态和外部形态上和野生型相似;当苯酚浓度分别为0.1 m M和1 m M时,通过植物的根长、叶片鲜重等比较发现,转基因株系比野生型植株对苯酚的耐受性更强,其生长形态较为正常,而野生型植株的生长则受到了明显抑制。由此可见,Md PPO2B转基因植物的PPO活性在植物降解酚类化合物过程中起重要作用;使用果树来源的多酚氧化酶基因用于有机污染物修复,对环境治理具有较好的应用前景。     

小金海棠S-腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶基因（MxSAMS）的克隆和表达分析

从本实验室建立的小金海棠缺铁差减文库中分离出一个cDNA片段,在GenBank中发现该片段与其它植物的S-腺苷甲硫氨酸合成酶(SAMS)基因具有90%的同源性。利用RACE技术成功地获得小金海棠（Malus xiaojinensis）SAMS基因(MxSAMS)的cDNA全长序列（GenBank登录号：EU639408）,该基因cDNA全长1 479 bp,最大开放阅读框1 176 bp,编码392个氨基酸,酶蛋白理论分子量为42.99 kD;与其它植物的蛋白质氨基酸序列同源性在88.1%~92.6%之间。推测的MxSAMS蛋白质三级结构包含3个保守结构域和一个保守的ATP结合位点GAGDQG。Southern 杂交显示,MxSAMS基因在小金海棠基因组中是单拷贝的。半定量RT-PCR结果表明,该基因在小金海棠的根和叶中均受缺铁胁迫诱导增强表达。     

攀西地区野生苹果属植物资源

通过野外调查鉴定及相关资料的查阅和标本馆的查询,报道了攀西地区野生苹果属植物资源山荆子、毛山荆子、丽江山荆子、湖北海棠、垂丝海棠、楸子、海棠花、西府海棠、滇池海棠、木里海棠、西蜀海棠、沧江海棠等12种,编制了分种检索表,并分别简述其利用价值.     

小金海棠ferritin基因的克隆和表达分析

本试验从小金海棠(Malus xiaojinensisensis)中克隆得到2个具有 CDS全长的ferritin基因(1182bp和940bp)和4个具有CDS片段的ferritin基因(934bp、594bp、1070bp和834bp)。序列分析表明它们均具有真核生物铁蛋白保守区(Euk_Ferritin)这一典型的植物铁蛋白结构特征。预测蛋白质相对分子量在21.58kDa和34.32kDa之间。进化树分析表明小金海棠的ferritin基因与梨的ferritin基因在同一进化分支上。根据qPCR和半定量RT-PCR结果,可将小金海棠ferritin基因的时间表达模式划分为早期表达型(MxFer1)、晚期表达型(MxFer2)、组成表达型(MxFer6)和波动表达型(MxFer3-5);就组织部位而言,MxFer1的表达具有组织特异性,只在叶中特异表达,而MxFer2-6在根和叶中均有表达。