生物结皮坡面不同降雨历时的产流特征

黄土高原退耕还林(草)工程实施后,生物结皮广泛发育,显著影响坡面产流。已有大量研究探索了生物结皮对径流的影响,但相关结论存在较大分歧。该研究以黄土高原典型生物结皮坡面为研究对象,通过人工模拟降雨试验,研究了生物结皮坡面产流过程。结果表明:生物结皮坡面较翻耕后的裸土坡面显著降低了初始产流时间,裸土坡面初始产流时间是生物结皮坡面的1.59～3.04倍。生物结皮盖度与初始产流时间之间呈显著的负相关关系;降雨15min时与60 min时生物结皮对坡面径流的影响发生逆转,90 mm/h的雨强下,当降雨历时为15 min时,生物结皮坡面较裸土坡面增加75.42%的径流;当降雨历时为60min时,生物结皮坡面径流量较裸土坡面降低52.42%;生物结皮影响了土壤水分入渗速率,导致生物结皮坡面与裸土坡面随降雨历时变化的产流特征出现差异,裸土坡面降雨60 min时的入渗率较15 min时降低了34.30%,高盖度生物结皮坡面降低了6.38%;生物结皮对坡面入渗产流的影响与降雨历时有极大的关系,降雨历时不同,很可能得到截然相反的结论,考虑生物结皮因素的野外降雨试验,降雨历时应不少于45min。研究结果为解释生物结皮影响坡面入渗产流方面存在的分歧提供了科学依据,进一步明确了干旱半干旱地区生物结皮的水文效应。     

Biocrusts resist runoff erosion through direct physical protection and indirect modification of soil properties

Purpose

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are ubiquitous in arid and semi-arid regions and play many critical roles in soil stabilization and erosion prevention, greatly decreasing soil loss. Although sediments may be completely controlled by well-developed biocrusts, runoff loss is observed. Consequently, it is important to study how biocrusts resist runoff erosion in different developmental stages to evaluate and manage water erosion.

Materials and methods

In the Loess Plateau Region, we sampled 32 biocrust plots representing eight stages of biocrust development and 5 slope cropland soil plots as bare soil control plots. We then used a rectangular open channel hydraulic flume to test the effects of biocrust development on runoff erosion.

Results and discussion

As expected, the establishment of biocrusts enhanced soil stability, and accordingly, soil anti-scourability significantly increased with biocrust development. Biocrusts exhibiting more than 36% or 1.22 g dm^?2 of moss coverage or biomass fully protected the soil from runoff erosion. Moreover, soil properties, such as soil organic matter, soil cohesion and soil bulk density, were also important in reducing erosion. The findings indicated that biocrusts inhibited runoff erosion through direct physical protection related to biocrust cover and biomass and through the indirect modification of soil properties. In the early biocrust development stage (when moss cover was less than 36%), cyanobacterial biocrust played a primary role in providing resistance to runoff erosion, with resistance being positively related to cyanobacterial biomass (chlorophyll a) and influenced by soil properties.

Conclusions

The relationship between soil anti-scourability and moss coverage or biomass can be divided into two stages based on a moss cover or biomass threshold. The capacity of biocrusts to resist runoff erosion was limited when moss cover was below the threshold value. Therefore, the stage corresponding to this level of moss cover should be of concern when estimating, predicting and managing water erosion.

     

Hydrology in a patterned landscape is co-engineered by soil-disturbing animals and biological crusts

Water redistribution has a profound influence on dryland ecosystem function. This hydrological function is largely regulated by ecosystem engineers including biological soil crusts (biocrusts) which produce run-off, and burrowing animals, such as the greater bilby, whose pits capture water. We estimated the relative importance of these two ecosystem engineers in determining infiltration rates in a system where dune slopes shed water to adjacent interdune swales to maximize overall productivity. Also, we determined which biocrust property was most hydrologically important: total cover, composition, patch aggregation or spatial heterogeneity. While both biocrusts and burrowing animals equally affected the overall infiltration through macro- and micropores (under ponding), only biocrusts were important for the infiltration specifically via micropores (under tension). Of the studied biocrust properties, community composition was the strongest influence such that the greater the prevalence of early successional biocrust patches, the greater the infiltration rate. Greater total cover of biocrusts reduced infiltration, and the spatial properties were relatively unimportant. Although bilbies and biocrusts comparably influenced infiltration under ponding at the microscale, realistic cover of bilby pits at the landscape scale is unlikely to strongly impair the hydrological function of dunes. Reintroduction of the endangered bilby may enhance nutrient cycling and plant recruitment via its seed and resource capturing pits, without a concomitant disruption of hydrological function. In contrast, removal of biocrusts caused by, e.g., livestock trampling, is expected to strongly enhance infiltration in the run-off areas, strongly reducing ecosystem productivity at the landscape scale.     

黄土丘陵区不同降水量带生物结皮对土壤氮素的影响

黄土丘陵区生物结皮广泛发育,可通过固氮作用影响土壤氮素水平,但该区生物结皮对土壤氮素水平的影响鲜见报道.本文通过野外调查结合采样分析,研究了黄土丘陵区不同降水量带生物结皮组成、覆盖度差异及其对土壤氮素水平的影响.结果表明,1)黄土丘陵区不同降水量带生物结皮覆盖度无显著差异,但组成有差别;2)不同降水量带土壤氮素含量剖面分布具有明显的分层特征,生物结皮显著增加了结皮层土壤氮素含量,对下层土壤影响较小,结皮层下0-2 cm、2-5 cm、5-10 cm土层中氮素含量差异不显著;3)生物结皮层土壤全氮、碱解氮及微生物氮在不同降水量带差异不显著,而0-2 cm、2-5 cm、5-10 cm土壤全氮、碱解氮及土壤微生物氮含量在200～300 mm降水量带小于300～600 mm降水量带.研究结果揭示了黄土丘陵区生物结皮对土壤氮素的贡献,而不同降水量带生物结皮对土壤氮素的贡献差异不显著的原因有待于进一步研究.     

黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区藓结皮覆盖土壤的蒸发特征

土壤蒸发是地表水分平衡及能量交换的组成部分,是干旱和半干旱区水文循环的关键环节。为探究黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区生物结皮对土壤蒸发的影响,以风沙土和黄绵土上发育的藓结皮为研究对象,通过模拟蒸发试验和自然蒸发试验,测定了不同蒸发条件下藓结皮覆盖土壤和无结皮土壤的蒸发强度,分析了藓结皮覆盖土壤的蒸发特征及其与无结皮土壤的差异。结果表明:(1)模拟蒸发试验中,藓结皮对土壤蒸发过程的影响表现出明显的阶段性,与无结皮土壤相比,藓结皮使土壤蒸发强度在大气蒸发力控制阶段降低了3.04%～15.46%(0.21～1.05 mm/d),在土壤导水率控制阶段增加了32.26%～187.07%(0.58～2.54 mm/d),在水汽扩散控制阶段增加了12.91%～87.73%(0.05～0.34 mm/d);土壤累积蒸发量大小表现为藓结皮覆盖土壤无结皮土壤。(2)自然蒸发试验中,6月16日至9月3日,无降雨时藓结皮覆盖土壤和无结皮土壤的蒸发速率均较低,藓结皮覆盖土壤的日平均蒸发量是无结皮土壤的1.12～1.42倍,自然降雨后二者的蒸发速率快速增加,降雨后土壤蒸发量是降雨前的2.20～8.55倍;在8月10—22日观测期内,藓结皮在雨后增加了土壤含水量,并对土壤蒸发起到促进作用,藓结皮覆盖土壤的累积蒸发量显著提高了19.22%～64.09%(F=21.85,P0.01)。研究表明,藓结皮覆盖增加了风沙土和黄绵土的水分蒸发强度,可能会对黄土高原水蚀风蚀交错区土壤水分保持产生不利影响。     

Experimental warming effects on the microbial community of a temperate mountain forest soil

Soil microbial communities mediate the decomposition of soil organic matter (SOM). The amount of carbon (C) that is respired leaves the soil as CO₂ (soil respiration) and causes one of the greatest fluxes in the global carbon cycle. How soil microbial communities will respond to global warming, however, is not well understood. To elucidate the effect of warming on the microbial community we analyzed soil from the soil warming experiment Achenkirch, Austria. Soil of a mature spruce forest was warmed by 4 °C during snow-free seasons since 2004. Repeated soil sampling from control and warmed plots took place from 2008 until 2010. We monitored microbial biomass C and nitrogen (N). Microbial community composition was assessed by phospholipid fatty acid analysis (PLFA) and by quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) of ribosomal RNA genes. Microbial metabolic activity was estimated by soil respiration to biomass ratios and RNA to DNA ratios. Soil warming did not affect microbial biomass, nor did warming affect the abundances of most microbial groups. Warming significantly enhanced microbial metabolic activity in terms of soil respiration per amount of microbial biomass C. Microbial stress biomarkers were elevated in warmed plots. In summary, the 4 °C increase in soil temperature during the snow-free season had no influence on microbial community composition and biomass but strongly increased microbial metabolic activity and hence reduced carbon use efficiency.     

Response of soil respiration to precipitation during the dry season in two typical forest stands in the forest-grassland transition zone of the Loess Plateau

Forest ecosystems on the Loess Plateau are receiving increasing attention for their special importance in carbon fixation and conservation of soil and water in the region. Soil respiration was investigated in two typical forest stands of the forest-grassland transition zone in the region, an exotic black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) plantation and an indigenous oak (Quercus liaotungensis) forest, in response to rain events (27.7 mm in May 2009 and 19 mm in May 2010) during the early summer dry season. In both ecosystems, precipitation significantly increased soil moisture, decreased soil temperature, and accelerated soil respiration. The peak values of soil respiration were 4.8 and 4.4 μmol CO₂ m⁻² s⁻¹ in the oak plot and the black locust plot, respectively. In the dry period after rainfall, the soil moisture and respiration rate gradually decreased and the soil temperature increased. Soil respiration rate in black locust stand was consistently less than that in oak stand, being consistent with the differences in C, N contents and fine root mass on the forest floor and in soil between the two stands. However, root respiration (R_r) per unit fine root mass and microbial respiration (R_m) per unit the amount of soil organic matter were higher in black locust stand than in oak stand. Respiration by root rhizosphere in black locust stand was the dominant component resulting in total respiration changes, whereas respiration by roots and soil microbes contributed equally in oak stand. Soil respiration in the black locust plantation showed higher sensitivity to precipitation than that in the oak forest.     

Controls on soil respiration in semiarid soils

Soil respiration in semiarid ecosystems responds positively to temperature, but temperature is just one of many factors controlling soil respiration. Soil moisture can have an overriding influence, particularly during the dry/warm portions of the year. The purpose of this project was to evaluate the influence of soil moisture on the relationship between temperature and soil respiration. Soil samples collected from a range of sites arrayed across a climatic gradient were incubated under varying temperature and moisture conditions. Additionally, we evaluated the impact of substrate quality on short-term soil respiration responses by carrying out substrate-induced respiration assessments for each soil at nine different temperatures. Within all soil moisture regimes, respiration rates always increased with increase in temperature. For a given temperature, soil respiration increased by half (on average) across moisture regimes; Q₁₀ values declined with soil moisture from 3.2 (at −0.03 MPa) to 2.1 (−1.5 MPa). In summary, soil respiration was generally directly related to temperature, but responses were ameliorated with decrease in soil moisture.     

黄土高原藓类生物结皮对表层土壤水分运动参数的影响

生物结皮普遍存在于干旱和半干旱地区土壤表层,对土壤水分有重要影响。为了进一步探究生物结皮对表层土壤水力学特性和水分运动过程的影响,该研究以黄土高原风沙土和黄绵土上发育的藓结皮为研究对象,通过野外采样与室内试验相结合,测定了藓结皮覆盖土壤和无结皮土壤的Boltzmann变换参数、土壤水分扩散率、入渗过程、比水容量和非饱和导水率,对比分析了有无藓结皮覆盖对表层土壤水分运动参数的影响。结果表明:藓结皮覆盖抑制了表层土壤水分的扩散,藓结皮覆盖土壤的Boltzmann变换参数和水分扩散率分别比无结皮土壤降低7.9%～27.3%和99.2%～99.6%;藓结皮覆盖后表层土壤渗透性显著降低,其水分入渗参数(初始入渗率、稳定入渗率、平均入渗率、累积入渗量)和非饱和导水率分别降低了17.1%～55.4%和84.8%～92.3%;藓结皮显著提升了表层土壤的持水和供水能力,藓结皮层的水分常数(田间持水量、萎蔫系数、重力水含量、有效水含量和易利用水含量)比无结皮土壤高40.9%～1 233.3%,土壤水吸力在100k Pa时的比水容量比无结皮土壤高7.4%～1 540.5%;相比黄绵土,藓结皮覆盖对风沙土的渗透性影响较小,而对土壤持水和供水性的影响较大。综上,黄土高原藓结皮覆盖降低了土壤渗透性,同时显著提高了表层土壤的水分有效性,这可能导致土壤表层在雨后截留较多水分,进而使土壤水分分布趋于浅层化,并改变该地区的土壤水分有效性和植物水分利用策略。     

黄土高原生物结皮对土壤养分的表层聚集与吸附固持效应

  【目的】  生物结皮的广泛发育可显著影响表层土壤养分状况,在土壤养分积累和循环中发挥重要作用。通过淋溶实验和吸附试验研究其作用效果和机制。  【方法】  以黄土高原质地不同的风沙土和黄绵土为对象,分别选取有生物结皮覆盖和无结皮覆盖的地块,分析生物结皮层、结皮层下0—2、2—5和5—10 cm土层土壤的有机质、全碳、全氮、全磷含量,研究生物结皮对土壤养分含量的影响及其随土壤深度的变化规律。以Cl?、K+、Ca2+为示踪离子开展土壤淋溶实验,分析其淋出土壤的特征;淋溶实验结束后,测定包括结皮层在内的各土层离子吸附解析量。  【结果】  1) 生物结皮层 (约2 cm厚) 养分含量是无结皮土壤的0.43～10.51倍。生物结皮覆盖下0—10 cm土壤的养分含量均高于对应深度的无结皮土壤,有机质、全碳、全氮、全磷含量比无结皮土壤增加了1.4%～184.9%。2) 生物结皮层的养分含量比其下层土壤提高了38.2%～557.1%,而无结皮的表层 (0—2 cm) 土壤养分含量仅比其下层土壤提高了13.4%～213.9%,这表明生物结皮增强了土壤养分的表层聚集。3) 生物结皮覆盖土壤中添加的养分在相同条件下相较于无结皮土壤更难以淋出;除易淋溶的Cl?全部淋出外,K+和Ca2+未被全部淋出,且在生物结皮覆盖土壤中的累积淋出量比无结皮土壤低21.9%～47.4%。淋溶实验结束后结皮层的Cl?、K+、Ca2+含量均显著高于无结皮 (8.8%～340.4%) 和结皮下层土壤 (14.5%～62.7%)。4) 生物结皮显著增加了土壤对Cl?、K+、Ca2+的吸附量,其增加幅度为27.8%～118.1%,且生物结皮层对不同离子吸附能力的强弱依次为Ca2+>K+>Cl?。  【结论】  与无结皮土壤相比,生物结皮能够增加土壤养分含量并促进土壤养分的表层聚集,同时提升土壤对养分的吸附与固持能力,因而有利于退化贫瘠土壤的养分积累,在干旱和半干旱地区土壤肥力提升与生态环境改善方面发挥着至关重要的作用。     

森林演替和气候变暖对暖温带天然次生林植物根系呼吸的交互效应

为了揭示森林演替和气候变暖及交互过程对森林土壤自养呼吸和森林不同层次植物根系呼吸的影响,以关帝山不同演替阶段4种天然次生林(杨桦阔叶落叶林、油松针阔混交林、华北落叶松林和云杉林)为研究对象,于2016—2019年利用Li—6400便携式分析仪观测每种林型不同层次植物根系呼吸和土壤自养呼吸生长季的变化规律;同时采用温室加热法,模拟增温对土壤自养呼吸及各组分的影响。结果表明:(1)根系呼吸速率和土壤自养呼吸速率随演替的进行而降低。乔木层根系呼吸对土壤自养呼吸的贡献率随演替进行则显著上升,而灌木层和草本层的贡献率则显著下降。(2)增温显著提高了不同演替阶段自养呼吸速率,提高幅度为8.48%~8.76%,并随演替进行而升高。森林不同层次植物根系呼吸速率对增温的响应程度不同,其中增温显著提高了草本层和灌木层植物根系呼吸速率,提高幅度分别为10.88%~14.00%和8.37%~15.26%,而[JP]对乔木层植物根系呼吸速率作用则不显著。增温降低了土壤自养呼吸和乔木层根系呼吸的贡献率,则提高了草本层根系呼吸对土壤自养呼吸的贡献率。(3)增温和演替没有改变土壤自养呼吸及各组分在生长季变化规律,但演替和增温对土壤自养呼吸、草本层和灌木层植物根系呼吸有显著的耦合效应。综上所述,森林土壤自养呼吸和根系呼吸速率随演替进行具有降低的趋势,土壤自养呼吸速率、灌木层和草本层植物根系呼吸速率对增温响应程度显著,并且对演替和增温的交互过程有显著的耦合效应,为气候变暖背景下森林更新过程对森林土壤碳排放影响的研究提供数据支持和理论依据。     

Effects of warming, wetting and nitrogen addition on substrate-induced respiration and temperature sensitivity of heterotrophic respiration in a temperate forest soil

Soil heterotrophic respiration and its temperature sensitivity are affected by various climatic and environmental factors.However,little is known about the combined effects of concurrent climatic and environmental changes,such as climatic warming,changing precipitation regimes,and increasing nitrogen(N)deposition.Therefore,in this study,we investigated the individual and combined effects of warming,wetting,and N addition on soil heterotrophic respiration and temperature sensitivity.We incubated soils collected from a temperate forest in South Korea for 60 d at two temperature levels(15 and 20℃,representing the annual mean temperature of the study site and 5℃warming,respectively),three moisture levels(10%,28%,and 50%water-filled pore space(WFPS),representing dry,moist,and wet conditions,respectively),and two N levels(without N and with N addition equivalent to 50 kg N ha^-1year^-1).On day 30,soils were distributed across five different temperatures(10,15,20,25,and 30℃)for 24 h to determine short-term changes in temperature sensitivity(Q₁₀,change in respiration with 10℃increase in temperature)of soil heterotrophic respiration.After completing the incubation on day 60,we measured substrate-induced respiration(SIR)by adding six labile substrates to the three types of treatments.Wetting treatment(increase from 28%to 50%WFPS)reduced SIR by 40.8%(3.77 to 2.23μg CO₂-C g^-1h^-1),but warming(increase from 15 to 20℃)and N addition increased SIR by 47.7%(3.77 to 5.57μg CO₂-C g^-1h^-1)and 42.0%(3.77 to 5.35μg CO₂-C g^-1h^-1),respectively.A combination of any two treatments did not affect SIR,but the combination of three treatments reduced SIR by 42.4%(3.70 to 2.20μg CO₂-C g^-1h^-1).Wetting treatment increased Q₁₀by 25.0%(2.4 to 3.0).However,warming and N addition reduced Q₁₀by 37.5%(2.4 to 1.5)and 16.7%(2.4 to 2.0),respectively.Warming coupled with wetting did not significantly change Q₁₀,while warming coupled with N addition reduced Q₁₀by 33.3%(2.4 to 1.6).The combination of three treatments increased Q₁₀by 12.5%(2.4 to 2.7).Our results demonstrated that among the three factors,soil moisture is the most important one controlling SIR and Q₁₀.The results suggest that the effect of warming on SIR and Q₁₀can be modified significantly by rainfall variability and elevated N availability.Therefore,this study emphasizes that concurrent climatic and environmental changes,such as increasing rainfall variability and N deposition,should be considered when predicting changes induced by warming in soil respiration and its temperature sensitivity.     

喀斯特坡面生物结皮发育对土壤抗蚀性能的影响

西南喀斯特地区普遍发育的生物结皮，对土壤侵蚀有显著的抑制作用。以贵州喀斯特坡面不同退耕年限地块(0,3,5,8,11年)生物结皮为研究对象，对不同流量水平(0.2,0.3,0.4,0.5 L/s)和坡度(5°,12°,17°,23°)条件下生物结皮对土壤抗蚀性能的影响机制进行研究。结果表明：(1)生物结皮发育能够促进土壤颗粒胶结，增强土壤团聚体稳定性，改善土壤结构，提高土壤持水和透水能力。(2)生物结皮发育可增强土壤抗崩解和抗剪切能力，与去除结皮处理相比，结皮存在时的土壤抗崩解和抗剪切能力分别提高24.83%～46.62%和25.77%～37.73%。(3)发育年限内(3～11年)结皮层抗拉力变化范围为1.95～5.76 N,随着生物结皮发育年限增加，结皮层结构越趋稳定，其抵抗破坏的能力也越强。(4)生物结皮可明显提高土壤抗冲性能，且受流量和坡度的双重制约，流量和坡度都存在临界值，分别为0.4 L/s和17°,超过临界值后，其保护作用显著减弱。研究结果对于喀斯特地区准确估算土壤流失和生态恢复建设正确评价具有重要意义。     

黄土高原藓结皮覆盖土壤的穿透阻力特征及其影响因素

生物结皮的发育显著地影响并改变了表层土壤的理化性状,从而影响土壤穿透阻力。为探明生物结皮层对土壤穿透阻力的影响,针对黄土高原风沙土和黄绵土两种典型土壤,利用高精度土壤贯入仪测定并比较了不同含水量下藓结皮土壤和无结皮土壤的穿透阻力差异,定量分析了藓结皮层对土壤穿透阻力的影响及其与土壤性质(含水量、容重和有机质含量以及颗粒组成)的关系。结果表明:风沙土和黄绵土藓结皮层最大穿透阻力的变化范围为0.38~3.74 MPa和0.43~8.01 MPa,分别为同等深度下无结皮土壤的2.14~9.45倍(P=0.001)和1.38~6.27倍(P=0.051)。藓结皮对风沙土穿透阻力的影响深度为表层2~12 mm(P=0.028),而对黄绵土的影响深度为3~24 mm(随含水量变异较大)。同时,与无结皮土壤的穿透阻力随深度增加而线性增加的趋势不同,藓结皮土壤的穿透阻力随深度增加在结皮层呈先增后减的趋势,在结皮下层呈线性增加的趋势。此外,藓结皮土壤的横向穿透阻力和纵向穿透阻力差异显著(P≤0.03),但在无结皮土壤上差异不显著(P≥0.052)。藓结皮土壤的穿透阻力与含水量呈显著的幂函数关系(P<0.001),与容重、有机质含量以及砂粒含量呈线性关系,这些因素均为藓结皮改变表层土壤穿透阻力的重要途径。     

Swelling of biocrusts upon wetting induces changes in surface micro-topography

In most of non-vegetated areas from drylands, soils are colonized by biocrusts, and although they represent a small fraction of the soil profile, they strongly affect several soil surface properties, such as porosity, available nitrogen and carbon content, hydrophobicity or micro-topography. The influence of BSCs on these soil properties has effects on numerous ecosystem processes, including water retention and runoff generation. Previous studies on the hydrological and erosive response of soils covered by biocrusts have highlighted the role of soil surface roughness as a key variable for understanding the influence of biocrusts on runoff and erosion, but biocrusts' effects on surface micro-topography varies depending on crust water content. Biocrusts can absorb large amounts of water in a short period of time, increasing their volume and modifying surface micro-topography, this change depending on biocruts type and development. A correct characterization of these surface variations may increase the knowledge about hydrological response of biocrusts, and for this reason, accurate ground level measurements of biologically crusted surfaces are essential. The objective of this study is to analyze the effect of wetting on surface micro-topography of biologically crusted soils. To achieve this objective, different crust types were scanned in the laboratory with high resolution laser scanner. Five samples were collected for each of the 4 different crust types (bare soil, cyanobacteria biocrust, and two different lichen biocruts). Two different scans were made in each sample, in dry and wet conditions. Random roughness (RR) was calculated for data from every scan, and the RR indexes obtained before and after wetting were compared. According with our initial hypothesis, an increase in surface height and surface roughness up to 0.24 and 0.20 mm respectively was observed in more developed lichen biocruts, under wet conditions respect to dry ones. These differences, despite being very subtle, could exert strong implications on runoff generation, and water evaporation, and show the complex interactions between biocruts, surface micro-topography and water fluxes.     

Potential mechanisms of soil nitrogen content heterogeneity associated with biocrust development in drylands

Biological soil crusts (biocrusts) are complex communities of micro- and macro-organisms dwelling at the soil surface in dryland regions worldwide, which contribute to important ecological functions in these areas. Biocrusts may reach different developmental stages, associated to autogenic succession of specific phototrophic organisms. However, notwithstanding the large amount of existing literature, little is known regarding the relationship between biocrust stages of development and soil nutrient dynamics. In this opinion paper, we specifically focused on soil nitrogen, and compared the total nitrogen content and potential nitrogenase activity of different developmental types of biocrust (-covered) soils. Based on published reports, we looked at a possible relationship between nitrogen content at the soil surface and biocrust development, discussing the potential mechanisms leading to the observed soil nitrogen content heterogeneity. The results showed that a higher nitrogen content remained associated to the presence of moss-dominated biocrusts, and this biocrust morphotype was characterized by a lower potential nitrogenase activity compared to the cyanobacteria- and/or lichen-dominated biocrusts. We hypothesized that these seemingly contradictory findings might be attributed to three potential mechanisms: nitrogen inheritance, nutrient retention and nutrient transfer, which we hereby examined one by one. Altogether, our opinion supports the theory of biocrust succession from incipient cyanobacteria-dominated stages to more ‘mature’ stages dominated by mosses. We stress how the heterogeneous distribution of soil nitrogen, which is closely related with biocrust development and community types, eventually affects regional and even global nitrogen dynamic and storage.     

模拟增温增雨对克氏针茅草原土壤呼吸的影响

利用开顶式生长室（OTC）于2011年7-9月和2012年5-9月两个植物生长季在以克氏针茅（Stipa krylovii）为主要建群种的典型草原进行模拟增温和增雨的控制试验,以探讨增温和增雨及其交互作用对内蒙古克氏针茅（S.krylovii）草原土壤呼吸的影响。结果表明：（1）土壤呼吸速率日内变化和逐日变化均呈单峰曲线趋势,全天15：00达到最高值（2.26μmol·m-2·s-1）,生长季8月初达到最高值（5.51μmol·m-2·s-1）。9：00-11：00土壤呼吸速率能较好代表全天24h均值。（2）与对照相比,增温1.91℃使土壤呼吸速率降低19.0%,且白天降幅大于夜间。增雨20%使土壤呼吸速率较对照增加18.6%。而增温增雨（气温增加1.64℃,降雨量增加20%）处理下,土壤呼吸速率较对照增加13.0%。（3）土壤呼吸速率与土壤含水量、土壤温度均具有显著相关关系。约79%的土壤呼吸速率是由土壤温度和土壤含水量共同决定的,其中以土壤含水量为主（R2=0.797,P〈0.001）。气温升高使土壤含水量降低,间接导致土壤呼吸速率下降。研究结果可为典型草原科学应对气候变化和草地畜牧业可持续发展提供依据。     

Grazing or Not Grazing: Implications for Ecosystem Services Provided by Biocrusts in Mediterranean Cork Oak Woodlands

Livestock grazing is one of the most common practices in managed woodlands affecting the abundance and diversity of plant and soil communities. While grazing effects have been studied thoroughly in vascular plants, little is known about grazing consequences for soil lichens and mosses (“biocrusts”) in managed woodlands. However, these complex communities have critical contributions to soil functioning in drylands. We evaluated grazing effects on biocrust abundance and functional composition in Mediterranean cork‐oak woodlands under long‐term grazing and after 7 and 17 years of grazing exclusion. We found four main groups in the region regarding the functional trait ‘growth form’: fruticose and foliose lichens, and short and tall mosses. Each group presented different water absorption and retention capacity, and showed group‐specific effects on soil water and temperature. Fruticose lichens were the most sensitive group to grazing, decreasing dramatically in cover with grazing (~7 times). Also, this group presented higher water retention capacity (~19 h), together with a consistent reducing effect on soil temperature along the grazing gradient (up to 0·9 °C). The shift in biocrust abundance and functional composition under grazing pressure has direct consequences in microclimate regulation, and is likely to influence other ecosystem processes such as CO₂ fixation, soil surface protection and habitat provision. In particular, microclimate regulation may affect cork‐oak regeneration processes, which is one of the main concerns in managed woodlands. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Snow removal alters soil microbial biomass and enzyme activity in a Tibetan alpine forest

Projected future decreases in snow cover associated with global warming in alpine ecosystems could affect soil biochemical cycling. To address the objectives how an altered snow removal could affect soil microbial biomass and enzyme activity related to soil carbon and nitrogen cycling and pools, plastic film coverage and returning of melt snow water were applied to simulate the absence of snow cover in a Tibetan alpine forest of western China. Soil temperature and moisture, nutrient availability, microbial biomass and enzyme activity were measured at different periods (before snow cover, early snow cover, deep snow cover, snow cover melting and early growing season) over the entire 2009/2010 winter. Snow removal increased the daily variation of soil temperature, frequency of freeze–thaw cycle, soil frost depth, and advanced the dates of soil freezing and melting, and the peak release of inorganic N. Snow removal significantly decreased soil gravimetric water, ammonium and inorganic N, and activity of soil invertase and urease, but increased soil nitrate, dissolve organic C (DOC) and N (DON), and soil microbial biomass C (MBC) and N (MBN). Our results suggest that a decreased snow cover associated with global warming may advance the timing of soil freezing and thawing as well as the peak of releases of nutrients, leading to an enhanced nutrient leaching before plant become active. These results demonstrate that an absence of snow cover under global warming scenarios will alter soil microbial activities and hence element biogeochemical cycling in alpine forest ecosystems.     

Response of ecosystem respiration to warming and grazing during the growing seasons in the alpine meadow on the Tibetan plateau

Intensive studies reveal that there is much uncertainty regarding how ecosystem and soil respiration will respond to warming and grazing, especially in the alpine meadow ecosystem. We conducted a first of its kind field-manipulative warming and grazing experiment in an alpine meadow on the Tibetan plateau to determine the effects of warming and grazing on ecosystem and soil respiration for 3-years, from 2006 to 2008. Generally, warming and grazing did not affect seasonal average ecosystem respiration (Re), and there was no interaction between grazing and warming. However, they significantly affected the Re early in the growing season and by the end of the growing season. Warming significantly increased seasonal average soil respiration (Rs) by 9.2%, whereas the difference mainly resulted from data gathered early in the growing season, before June 2007. Positive correlations between soil temperature and Re and Rs were observed, and soil temperature explained 63-83% of seasonal Re variations during the 3-year study and 19-34% of Rs variations in 2007. Seasonal Re in 2008 and Rs in 2007 were slightly negatively correlated to soil moisture, but interannual average Re decreased with a decrease in precipitation for all treatments. Warming and grazing reduced the Q₁₀ value of Re in 2007 and 2008 but did not affect the Q₁₀ value of Rs. The Q₁₀ values of Rs were much lower than the Q₁₀ values of Re in 2007. These results suggest that grazing may reduce the temperature sensitivity of Re and that Re was mainly controlled by soil temperature rather than moisture which varied with timescale in the alpine meadow.