Episodicity of Sulphate Deposition in Finland

A characteristic of daily acid deposition data, in particular at remote sites, is the occurrence of some extreme peaks above the base level of moderate values. A large proportion of the annual acid deposition is accumulated in a few days: 5 worst days at the Finnish background stations can bring 20–30 % of the annual bulk sulphate load. The aim of this study was to determine whether there is a difference between stations in the number of extreme daily bulk acid depositions. The bulk deposition of sulphate in the 1990's at five Finnish monitoring stations was used as a reference. Days on which the deposition value exceeded the annual median value of the station by a factor of 10 were counted as episode days. The number of episode days in central and northern Finland differed significantly (p<0.05) from the number in the south, when tested with the non-parametric Kruskal-Wallis test. The episodes cannot be completely explained by high precipitation amounts: the mean sulphate concentration in episodic rain was higher than the annual mean concentration. The episodes were mostly imported: the air mass arriving at the station had passed over areas with high emissions outside Finland. A more exact knowledge of the episodicity benefits an examination of the ecological stress caused by acid deposition as well as a study of the critical load and the crossing of this threshold.     

皆伐对杉木人工林土壤呼吸的影响

应用密闭室碱吸收法对杉木人工林皆伐后的土壤呼吸及各分室呼吸进行为期1年定位研究,结果表明,杉木林皆伐后前4个月土壤呼吸显著高于对照(未伐地)的,皆伐6个月后则显著低于对照的,但伐后1年内的平均土壤呼吸则与对照的无显著差异。皆伐地枯枝落叶层呼吸和矿质土壤呼吸分别在伐后的5个月和6个月内显著高于对照的,但此后则与对照的无显著差异。皆伐地根系呼吸除在伐后当月显著高于对照的外,第3个月迅速降低至消失。皆伐地土壤呼吸、枯枝落叶层呼吸和矿质土壤呼吸最大值出现时间均较对照的有所提前。伐后1年内皆伐地枯枝落叶层呼吸、矿质土壤呼吸和根系呼吸占土壤呼吸的比例分别为34·5%、63·9%和1·6%,而对照的则分别为23·4%、50·1%和26·5%。双因素关系模型拟合结果表明,土壤温度和土壤湿度共同解释皆伐和对照土壤呼吸速率变化的54%和90%。皆伐地土壤呼吸及各分室呼吸对土壤温度的敏感性低于对照的,但对土壤湿度的敏感性则高于对照的。皆伐地土壤呼吸、矿质土壤呼吸和枯枝落叶层呼吸的Q10分别为1·42、1·53和1·34,而对照的土壤呼吸、矿质土壤呼吸、枯枝落叶层呼吸和根系呼吸的Q10则分别为2·42、1·81、2·40和4·41。     

Episodic Release of Arsenic,Copper and Chromium from a Wood Preservation Site Monitored by Transplanted Aquatic Moss

Leaching from a wood preservation site in Norway, severely contaminated with copper (Cu), chromium (Cr) and arsenic (As), was investigated using aquatic moss. The objectives were three-fold: (i) study the release of trace metals into a river during a rainfall episode, (ii) determine whether aquatic moss can be used to detect leaching during episodic events when sampling is frequent, and (iii) determine whether aquatic moss can be used as a bioindicator in brackish water. Aquatic moss (Fontinalis antipyretica was transplanted into the river in eight moss-cages. Samples were collected during one episode of rainfall. Concentrations of As in the moss increased during the rainfall event. Cu and Cr concentrations in the moss increased during the beginning of the period, but tended to decrease because of dilution towards the end. Accumulation patterns of Cu, Cr and As in the moss varied probably because of differences in binding affinity to soil and to the moss. The use of F. antipyretica proved that leaching of trace metals do increase during a rainfall event. It was shown that aquatic moss can be used as an indicator to monitor leaching during rainfall events, however, timing of sampling is critical. Although the moss survived in brackish water, it is questioned whether ions in the water can cause competition and desorption of the metals in the moss.     

Precipitation and pollution interaction effect on the abundance of Collembola in hardwood forests in the lower Midwestern United States

The Collembola communities were studied in ecologically analogous oak–hickory forests in the Ohio River valley, USA, along a long-term atmospheric sulfur and nitrogen deposition gradient in Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. We found 71 Collembola species among which families of Onychiuridae and Isotomidae were the most abundant. Species diversity in study sites was not affected by atmospheric deposition. However, changes in the relative abundance of acidophilic and acidophobic species paralleled the deposition gradient. Total Collembola abundance was not adversely affected by the atmospheric deposition alone when the region received normal precipitation levels. Total numbers of Collembola were reduced by 50–85% in the high deposition sites compared to low deposition site during the drought period in the lower Midwestern United States in 1989 and during summer 1990. Collembola abundance was not adversely affected in the high deposition sites compared with a low deposition site when all sites received normal precipitation amounts. Results of the study suggest that total Collembola abundance can be adversely affected by the interaction of drought and pollution stress factors.     

Biogeochemistry of two Appalachian deciduous forest sites in relation to episodic stream acidification

Bulk precipitation, throughfall, and soil water chemistry were studied from November 1983 to November 1984 at two ridge-top Appalachian deciduous forest sites to isolate causes of differing episodic stream acidification. The Fork Mountain site in West Virginia, which exhibited little episodic stream acidification, had lower deposition of H⁺ and SO _inf4 ^sup2? and greater reductions of H⁺ in the water circulating through the forest canopy, forest floor, and mineral soil than the Peavine Hill site in Pennsylvania. Greater neutralization at Fork Mountain was linked to higher Ca and Mg carbonate contents in the sandstone and shale soil parent materials. Fork Mountain had greater amounts of exchangeable bases in the organic and mineral soil horizons. Neither site appeared to be accumulating SO _inf4 ^sup2? in the soil, with Peavine Hill losing 56% more than was received in bulk deposition. Anions in soil leachate at Fork Mountain were largely balanced by Ca²⁺ and Mg²⁺, while at the Peavine Hill site A1" was the dominant cation. Results suggest that the typically-low carbonate content of sandstone and shale soil parent materials commonly found in Appalachian forests may be a key parameter controlling soil and stream acidification. Data for the one-year period also suggest bulk deposition of H⁺ was 63% greater at Peavine Hill than Fork Mountain.     

Daily photosynthesis totals calculated from solar radiation histograms

Histograms of the number of hours in the day in which the photosynthetic photon flux density (PPFD) of solar radiation was within 5 preset bands, were constructed from readings made with a miniature battery-operated millivolt histogram recorder, connected to a photon sensor. The number of histograms showing a bimodal distribution was much fewer than was expected from a review of the literature, even in a site shaded by trees. This was attributed to smoothing of the data over a whole day, compared with published data which were mostly taken near noon. Bimodal distributions were found in a greenhouse under clear or partly cloudy conditions.The histograms were combined with published data for the instantaneous gross photosynthetic responses to PPFD of two bermudagrass swards, one of low leaf area index (LAI) and highly non-linear response, and the other of high LAI and more linear response. The daily photosynthesis totals of the swards were calculated by summing the products of the number of hours accumulated in each band by the photosynthetic rate in the center of the band.Because of the non-linearity of response, the photosynthesis total in the greenhouse was 75–82% of that calculated for an open site on a clear day, while the daily photon total was only 70% of the open site value. Also, for the same daily photon total, the daily photosynthesis total of each sward on the open site was greater on a day of light clouds (moderate PPFD) than on a day of sunshine alternating with heavy clouds (bimodal histogram of PPFDs). The difference between the two days was greater for the sward with the more non-linear response. These interactions between non-linearity of photosynthetic response and type of radiation histogram were in the expected direction, however, the differences were not very large (+ 10% for the sites and responses studied).The histogram recorder provides an inexpensive and convenient means of obtaining solar radiation data that can be used to calculate daily photosynthesis totals, either from experimental photosynthesis data or from canopy photosynthesis models. Because the response of photosynthesis is non-linear, linear integrals of solar irradiance do not provide sufficient information for such photosynthesis studies.     

A Comparison of Temporal Patterns in Trace Metal Concentration in Tree Rings of Four Common European Tree Species Adjacent to a Cu-Cd Refinery

Metal processing at a Cu-Cd refinery at Prescot in N.W. England has led to severe contamination of the surrounding soils and vegetation, although Cu and Cd in bulk deposition declined dramatically between 1975 and 1990. Despite high spatial and temporal variability in metal deposition, mean Cd concentrations in annual tree rings of sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.), lime (Tilia europaea L.) and beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) at Prescot were correlated with annual bulk Cd deposition. In contrast, mean Cd concentrations in ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) were unrelated to Cd deposition and there was no significant relationship between mean Cu concentrations in tree rings and Cu deposition in any species. Mean Pb concentrations in sycamore, lime and beech at Prescot and the reference site also decreased over time. At Prescot however, Cd concentrations in tree rings formed in the mid 1990s were up to 10-fold higher than the reference site despite Cd deposition values during this period that were typical of levels expected for urban areas in the UK. The high Cd concentrations in wood during this period indicate that the majority of Cd in tree rings at Prescot is derived from soil, limiting the usefulness of dendrochemistry for monitoring temporal changes in metal deposition. It appears that trees are not simply passive recorders of metal deposition and other possibilities, in addition to decreasing atmospheric deposition, may explain the patterns of Cd and Pb found in sycamore, lime and beech. More research on the physiology of metal cycling in trees is required before dendrochemical techniques can be applied with confidence in environmental monitoring programs.     

Evolution of phenolic compounds during an experimental aging in wood of Sherry vinegar

Changes in the physicochemical composition of wine vinegars produced by submerged culture system and aged in wood were followed. Five Sherry wine vinegars and a model vinegar solution were aged in six new American oak butts of 16.6 L capacity. A total of 24 phenolic compounds were monitored during the maturation study (24 months), along with other physicochemical parameters (total extract, acidity, residual alcohol and total phenolic index). Multivariate statistical analysis was applied to the data. From the sixth month on, significant changes were produced in most of the phenolic compounds, mainly aromatic aldehydes and 5-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furaldehyde. When all the phenolic compounds were considered as variables, cluster analysis grouped samples according to the wine substrate employed in the elaboration of vinegars under study. Within each subcluster, samples are arranged according to their aging status when phenolic compounds accounting significative changes at 180 days of aging are considered. Discriminant functions were constructed from the phenolic compounds data set. The validity of these functions was tested using 13 samples of aged commercial Sherry wine vinegars and 25 unaged vinegars. A total of 97.4% of the test samples was correctly classified within its respective group.     

基于CMIP5全球气候模式的21世纪贵州省极端降水事件预估

利用国家气候中心收集和整理的8个CMIP5全球气候模式在RCP8.5、RCP4.5和RCP2.6温室气体排放情景下的逐日降水资料,使用泰勒图对2006-2016年数据进行检验,采用模拟效果最好的CCSM4和IPSL-CM5A-MR模式在等权重系数条件下的平均值,计算并分析贵州省2018-2044年、2045-2071年、2072-2098年3个阶段与降水有关的极端天气气候事件指数,即连续干旱日数(CDD)、大于20mm的降水日数(R20mm)、连续5d最大降水量(Rx5day)和简单日降水强度指数(SDII)相对于参照期(1986-2005年)的变化特征。结果表明:在3种情景下,21世纪各个阶段省东部CDD均多于参照期,且排放情景越高,偏多幅度越大,因此,贵州省东部地区未来可能发展的旱情值得关注。在21世纪不同阶段不同情景下,贵州省R20mm、Rx5day和SDII普遍多于参照期,且越到后期,高排放情景下(RCP8.5)增幅越大,中低排放情景下(RCP4.5和RCP2.6)增幅放缓甚至减小。总的来说,全球变暖背景下尤其是高排放情景下贵州省极端降水事件有增加的趋势。     

冻融期温带草地土壤呼吸和土壤异养呼吸的日变化特征及对水氮添加的响应

探讨冻融期土壤呼吸和土壤异养呼吸如何响应降雨变化和氮沉降增加,对于准确预估未来全球变化背景下陆地生态系统土壤碳动态有着重要意义。选择内蒙古温带典型草地开展增雨和氮沉降增加野外模拟实验,分析水氮变化条件下冻融期土壤呼吸及土壤异养呼吸的日变化特征。冻融期,土壤呼吸及土壤异养呼吸通量（CO₂排放速率）最大值出现在温度最高的午后或是土壤发生冻融后的早晨,最小值则出现在昼夜内温度最低的时间段。在秋季和春季两个昼夜观测日期内,水氮增加对呼吸通量的促进效应均不显著（P > 0.05）,但却促使土壤呼吸累积通量分别增加了约145 mg m?2和70 mg m?2。由于异养呼吸在土壤呼吸中占比高（> 70.3%）,因此,这两个观测时段内,水氮增加促使土壤异养呼吸日累积通量增加的值与土壤呼吸增加的值十分接近。呼吸通量与土壤水分、氮含量以及5 cm和10 cm地温的相关性不显著（P > 0.05）,与气温和表层地温的相关性显著,且呈现显著的一元二次非线性拟合关系（P < 0.01）,其中,气温可以解释呼吸通量日变化的53% ~ 84%。温度是控制呼吸通量日变化的主要因子,水氮添加在昼夜观测尺度上对土壤呼吸和土壤异养呼吸的日累积通量的促进效应不容忽视。     

Factors Controlling Mercury Transport in an Upland Forested Catchment

Total mercury (Hg) deposition and input/output relationships were investigated in an 11-ha deciduous forested catchment in northern Vermont as part of ongoing evaluations of Hg cycling and transport in the Lake Champlain basin. Atmospheric Hg deposition (precipitation + modeled vapor phase downward flux) was 425 mg ha-1 during the one-year period March 1994 through February 1995 and 463 mg ha-1 from March 1995 through February 1996. In the same periods, stream export of total Hg was 32 mg ha-1, respectively. Thus, there was a net retention of Hg by the catchment of 92% the first year and 95% the second year. In the first year, 16.9 mg ha-1 or about half of the annual stream export, occurred on the single day of peak spring snowmelt in April. In contrast, the maximum daily export in the second year, when peak stream flow was somewhat lower, was 3.5 mg ha-1 during a January thaw. The fate of the Hg retained by this forested catchment is not known. Dissolved (< 0.22 µm) Hg concentrations in stream water ranged from 0.5-2.6 ng L-1, even when total (unfiltered) concentrations were greater than 10 ng L-1 during high flow events. Total Hg concentrations in stream water were correlated with the total organic fraction of suspended sediment, suggesting the importance of organic material in Hg transport within the catchment. High flow events and transport with organic material may be especially important mechanisms for the movement of Hg through forested ecosystems.     

Integrated Assessment of Soil Chemical Status. 2. Application of a Regionalized Model to 622 Forested Sites in Switzerland

A regionalized version of the dynamic, process-oriented, multi-layer soil chemistry model SAFE was applied to 622 forest sites in Switzerland to assess effects of acidifying atmospheric deposition on the soil chemistry between 1850 and 2050. Simulation indicates that the present day chemical status of Swiss soils is a result of the last 50 years of acid deposition. Indicative soil parameters such as soil solution pH, acid neutralizing capacity, total Al concentration, base cation to total A1 molar ratio and base saturation consistently deteriorate since the beginning of the 1950s, when acid loads start to increase. The simulated adverse evolution of soil chemistry persists until some time between 1975 and 2010, and apart from being site-dependent, the turning-point is also dependent on which parameter is considered at which soil depth.     

云南烤烟5项化学成分含量与其环境生态要素的关系

基于云南565个植烟点的土壤、烟叶取样测试分析数据和由实测气象站网推算的气象数据，应用分类分级方差对比、相关分析和等级化平滑过滤干扰的要素响应分析三种方法，研究揭示了品种、土壤、气象三因素综合影响下各主要要素对烤烟化学成分含量影响的相对大小；基本明确了云南烟叶中总糖、还原糖、烟碱、总氮和蛋白质含量与土壤基本要素、各时段基本气象要素的关系。光、温、水气象条件是影响云南烤烟5项化学成分的主要生态要素；在光、温、水总量基本满足烤烟经济种植需求的前提下，云南烟区光、温、水三要素在大田期间的时段分布和匹配比其大田期总量对烟叶5项成分含量的影响大。云南烤烟大田前期（4—5月）少雨多光照、湿度小、气温较高和日较差大的天气气候，既提高烟叶含糖量又降低烟碱、总氮和蛋白质含量；其大田中后期（尤其7—8月）多雨寡照、湿度大、气温偏低和日较差小的气象条件，有相反的影响效应。大田期各月气温与烟叶含糖量呈负相关，对烟碱含量影响不显著；7—8月气温高可提高烟叶总氮和蛋白质含量。土壤因素对烟叶5项成分的影响总体上小于气象因素；烤烟4个优良品种间的烟叶5项成分含量差异不显著。     

The effects of lead shot deposition on soils and crops at a clay pigeon shooting site in northern England

Abstract. The impact of lead shot on soils and crops was examined at a clay pigeon shooting site in northern England. Topsoil cores were collected along a 300 m transect from the shooting range, and the numbers of lead shot pellets per soil core, total and 'plant-available'(0.5 m acetic acid extractable) lead concentrations, organic matter content, pH and cation exchange capacity were determined. The number of oilseed rape plants and their stem diameters were recorded in 1 m² quadrats placed at the soil sampling locations. Total and 'plant-available' lead concentrations in the soil were most but plant numbers per m² and mean stem diameters were least in the area of greatest lead shot deposition. Total lead concentrations in the soil commonly exceeded 5000 mg/kg; these are considerably greater than threshold 'trigger' concentrations proposed by the Department of the Environment, above which soils are considered to be contaminated and warrant further investigation. Concentrations of lead in the oilseed rape plants themselves were also largest in the area of most intense lead shot deposition; in root samples the lead concentration exceeded 400 mg/kg. The management and remediation of contaminated soils at the clay pigeon shooting site are discussed.     

华北石质山区杏树蒸腾规律和蒸降差分析

以河南省济源市石质山区8a生梯田杏树为例,利用热扩散植物液流技术（TDP）测算得到2005年和2006年杏树逐日蒸腾数据,结合同步观测的降水量数据,分析了华北石质山区杏树蒸腾耗水规律及水分供求关系,旨在为该地区节水杏园的发展提供依据。结果表明：（1）杏树蒸腾速率（TR）呈现出明显的日际变化特征,且在同一生长期内,晴天-多云日的蒸腾速率高于阴天。（2）从全年来看,4-8月杏树蒸腾速率相对其他月份要高,其中,5月（6月）蒸腾速率为全年最大时期;1月（12月）蒸腾速率为全年最低水平。（3）在华北石质山区,2005年和2006年的年际总降水量与杏树蒸腾耗水量差值分别为-263.25mm和-220.47mm,说明周年降水可以满足杏树蒸腾耗水的需要。但各月的蒸降差差异很大,7-9月降水量大于蒸腾量;其他大多月份降水不能满足杏树耗水的需要。     

Deposition of acidic species at a rural location in New South Wales,Australia

Wet-only rainwater composition on a daily basis, and atmospheric SO₂ and NO₂ concentrations on a monthly basis have been measured over a two year period at four sites ～100 km to the west of Sydney. Bulk aerosol composition on a monthly basis was also measured at one site. The study region is predominantly rural in character, but contains two coal-fired thermal power stations with a total installed capacity of 2320 MW, as well as several min or population centres, including a small city, with a total population of about 21,000. The measurement sites were located roughly on the perimeter of a circle of about 20 km radius having the power stations at its centre. Three of the sites were situated in rural settings, while the fourth was located on the outskirts of the small city of Lithgow. Atmospheric acid loadings at all sites were low by the standards usually associated with industrialised regions of Europe and North America, with about one third of rainwater total acidity provided by organic acids (formic, acetic and oxalic). At the three rural sites, total inorganic acid deposition, comprising measured wet deposition plus inferred dry deposition of acidic S and N species, averaged about 30 meq m^?2 y^?1, a low figure by most standards. At the site located near the city of Lithgow total deposition of acidic S and N species averaged about 80 meq m^?2 y^?1.     

Influence of the Sampling Period on the Deposition Time Series of Major Ions in Bulk Precipitation

The influence of a change from daily to weekly sampling of bulk precipitation on the obtained deposition values was studied with parallel sampling for 8 months at the station of Virolahti in 2004. Due to dry deposition, the deposition values of the whole period were found to be 5–70% higher from weekly sampling than from daily sampling, the biggest difference being for K⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg⁺ and Na⁺. The collection efficiencies of the summer sampler and the winter sampler compared to the standard rain gauge were studied from daily sampling in 1991–2003 and weekly sampling in 2004–2008. The performance was best in summer and in winter with rain samples (median value 85–88%), while the median value for daily snow samples was 72%. In winter, the total sum of precipitation collected in the daily sampler and the weekly sampler was 78% and 69%, respectively. The deficit in the weekly sampler in winter was concluded to be due to evaporation, while from the summer sampler no evaporation seemed to occur. Use of the precipitation amount measured by the standard rain gauge when calculating annual precipitation-weighted mean values gave higher mean concentrations than the use of the precipitation measured by the deposition sampler itself, the biggest difference of 8–11% being in the sea-salt ions Cl^?, Mg⁺ and Na⁺. It was concluded that the concentration and deposition values measured by daily and weekly bulk sampling are incompatible, and should not be combined into the same time series.     

Assessment of Atmospheric Arsenic Level in Airborne Dust Particulates of an Urban City of Central India

An assessment of arsenic contamination in Raipur city (21°14′N, 18°38′E) of Chhattisgarh in the central part of India is reported here, for a monitoring period between November 1996 to June 1997, in airborne dust particulates. The concentration level of As were higher in the industrial site, followed by heavy traffic as compared to other sites. The monthly atmospheric arsenic deposition, in μg As per g of dust fall, of 6 sites are in the range of 0.100(μ0.020)–4.00(μ0.020); site no. 1 industrial area, 0.100(μ0.020)–0.320(μ0.020); site no. 2 residential area, 0.044(μ0.070)–0.337(μ0.030); site no. 3 commercial area, 0.093(μ0.068)–1.870(μ0.020); site no. 4 residential area, 0.111(μ0.020)–1.912(μ0.010); site no. 5 residential area and 0.068(μ0.040)–3.037(μ0.060); site no. 6 heavy traffic area. The total annual flux of As in the fall-out at different zones is in the range 0.033–1.12 kg km^-2 yr^-1. The month wise collection and analysis of dust fall out rate between 3.0(μ0.10)–91.3(μ1.4) mt (metric tonnes) km^-2 month^-1 were observed at all 6 sampling sites. Anthropogenic and environmental factors play important roles in the contribution of arsenic in airborne particulate matters.