Carryover of maduramicin from feed containing cross-contamination levels into eggs of laying hens

Maduramicin is a coccidiostat authorized as feed additive in the European Union for chickens and turkeys for fattening but not for laying hens, considering the risk of residues in eggs. The unavoidable cross-contamination of non-target feed with coccidiostats is regulated by Commission Directive 2009/8/EC and resulting carry-over in food by Commission Regulation (EC) No. 124/2009. To verify the compliance of the maximum levels for maduramicin in feed (50 μg/kg) and eggs (2 μg/kg), the carry-over from feed into eggs was investigated. Diets containing 10, 30, and 50 μg of maduramicin/kg of feed were fed to laying hens. Feed, egg white, and yolk were analyzed by LC-MS/MS. Maduramicin residues were only detected in in egg yolk. Feeding the 10 μg/kg maduramicin diet resulted in maduramicin concentrations up to 2.5 μg/kg in whole eggs, already exceeding the maximum level. A carry-over rate of 8% maduramicin from feed into eggs was calculated.     

Antimicrobial residue detection in chicken yolk samples following administration to egg-producing chickens and effects of residue detection on competitive exclusion culture (PREEMPT) establishment

Competitive exclusion (CE) cultures may offer alternatives to antimicrobial agents for disease prophylaxis in poultry. To avoid potential transfer of antibiotic resistance, safe and effective CE cultures must, by necessity, be highly sensitive to antimicrobial residues. The following studies evaluated the effect of maternal administration of selected antibiotics on the establishment of a licensed CE culture, PREEMPT. Selected antibiotics were administered to actively laying hens for a period of 7 days (experiment 1) or 9 days (experiment 2) in drinking water [sulfadimethoxine (0.05%), enrofloxacin (0.005%), and tylosin tartrate (0.05%)] or feed (sulfadimethoxine with ormetoprim, 250 ppm). In experiment 1, fertile eggs were collected daily and subjected to bioassay for detectable antimicrobial residues in yolk. Antimicrobial residues were not detected during the 7 days of treatment or the subsequent 3 days following cessation of treatment in the control, sulfadimethoxine, sulfadimethoxine with ormetoprim, or tylosin treatment groups. However, detectable residues were observed in eggs derived from enrofloxacin-treated hens on days 6 and 7 during antibiotic administration and also on days 2 and 3 post-antibiotic administration. In experiment 2, antimicrobial residues were also only detected in yolks from hens treated with enrofloxacin. Residue detection occurred on days 2-6 of antibiotic administration, on day 9 of antibiotic administration, on days 1-3 post-antibiotic administration, and also on day 7 post-antibiotic administration. A subset of eggs from each experimental group, corresponding to days 2-6 of antibiotic administration, days 4-6 post-antibiotic administration, and days 14-16 post-antibiotic administration, were pooled for incubation, and chicks hatched from these pools of fertile eggs were treated with PREEMPT at hatch. When 48-h cecal propionate concentrations were used as an index of culture establishment, reduced (P < 0.05) efficacy was observed only in chicks derived from enrofloxacin-treated hens at either collection period. Although several antibiotics do not appear to produce detectable egg residues or interfere with CE culture establishment, these data suggest that chicks derived from enrofloxacin-treated hens may not be candidates for safe and effective CE culture treatment.     

Quantitative analysis of tylosin in eggs by high performance liquid chromatography with electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry: residue depletion kinetics after administration via feed and drinking water in laying hens

Maximum residue limits (MRLs) have been established by the European Union when tylosin is used therapeutically. They are fixed at 200 microg/kg for eggs. A highly sensitive and selective quantitative liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (LC/ESI/MS/MS) method suitable for monitoring tylosin residues in eggs to determine its depletion kinetics was developed and validated. For sample pretreatment all samples were liquid-liquid extracted with citrate buffer (pH 5.0) and acetonitrile. Liquid chromatographic separation was carried out on a reversed phase C18 column employing a 0.5% formic acid/acetonitrile gradient system. The tylosin recovery in eggs at a concentration range from 1.0-400 microg/kg was >82% with relative standard deviations between 1.5 and 11.0%. In two experimental studies administrating tylosin via feed (final dosage: 1.5 g/kg) or drinking water (final dosage: 0.5 g/L), no residues above the MRL were found during and after treatment. Moreover, all samples were well below the actual MRL of 200 microg/kg. Therefore, our residue data suggest that a withholding period for eggs is not required when laying hens are treated with tylosin in recommended dosages via feed or drinking water. Keywords: Tylosin; residue; depletion; laying hen; withholding period; mass spectrometry.     

Development and validation of a lateral flow device for the detection of nicarbazin contamination in poultry feeds

Concentrations of the coccidiostat nicarbazin as low as 2 mg/kg in feed can result in violative drug residues arising in poultry liver. A lateral flow device (LFD) was developed for the detection of contaminating concentrations of nicarbazin following solvent extraction of poultry feeds. Test results, as determined by both visual and instrumental measurement, are available within minutes. For 22 feed samples, nicarbazin-free and fortified at 2 mg/kg, the % relative inhibition ranged from 0 to 45% and from 53 to 85%, respectively. Nicarbazin contamination at the critical concentration (2 mg/kg) can be determined in all cases providing the sampling is representative. A wide range of feed samples taken at a mill that incorporated nicarbazin into poultry feed were analyzed. Data generated for these samples by both the LFDs and a mass spectrometric method were compared, and a significant correlation was achieved.     

Residues of spinosad in meat, milk, and eggs

Spinosad is an insect control agent that is derived from a naturally occurring soil bacterium and has a high level of activity against insects that infest a variety of crops. Dairy and poultry feeding studies were conducted to determine the magnitude of spinosad residues in animal products that would result from the consumption of typical feed commodities containing residues of spinosad. Dairy cows were dosed for 28 days with spinosad at rates equivalent to 0, 1, 3, and 10 microg/g in the diet. Chicken hens were dosed for 42 days with spinosad at rates equivalent to 0, 0.1, 0.3, 1, and 5 microg/g in the diet. Milk, eggs, and tissue samples were analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography and/or immunoassay methods. Spinosad residues occurred in all of the sample types but were lowest in eggs, skim milk, and lean meat and were highest in the fat.     

Aflatoxicol and aflatoxins B1 and M1 in the tissues of pigs receiving aflatoxin

Aflatoxicol (AFL) and aflatoxins B1 and M1 were found in tissues (kidney, liver, and muscle) of feeder pigs given an estimated LD50 oral dose of B1 (1.0 mg/kg body weight) provided as a rice culture of Aspergillus flavus and of market-weight pigs fed a naturally contaminated feed, containing aflatoxin B1 at a level of 400 ng/g from corn, for 14 days. The residues in all tissues decreased with time after treatment in both groups, with no detectable residues (approximate detection limits, ng/g, B1 0.03, M1 0.05, AFL 0.01) in pig tissues from the feeding experiment 24 h after withdrawal of aflatoxin-contaminated feed. B1 and M1, when found in the feeding experiment, were at about the same levels in all tissues except the kidney, in which M1 was the dominant aflatoxin. The level of AFL, when detected, was about 10% of the B1 level.     

LED光源改善鸡舍环境及肉鸡生产性能

探讨全封闭饲养条件下,LED光源对肉鸡生产性能,养分表观消化率和鸡舍空气中NH3、CO2、粉尘浓度,以及空气微生物含量的影响。试验于2017年3月2日至3月30日在河南省某农业集团一大型肉鸡场进行。选用健康状况良好、体况一致的1日龄白羽肉鸡240只,采用单因子完全随机试验设计,分为2个处理组,一组采用暖白色光LED灯光源照明为试验组,另一组采用普通暖白色荧光灯光源照明为对照组。试验期间详细观察肉鸡生产情况,分别计算平均日采食量、平均日增质量、料质量比、发病率以及死淘率。于肉鸡8、15、22和28日龄当日全收粪法测定粗蛋白、粗脂肪、钙和磷的表观消化率。试验期间每天08:00,14:00和20:00,采用光化学方法分别在两栋鸡舍内测量NH3和CO2浓度,测量点分布依据五点法,测量高度为0.5 m。分别对8、15、22和28日龄的鸡舍,采用质量法测定粉尘含量,平板沉降法测定空气微生物含量。结果表明,与荧光灯相比,LED光源对8~22日龄肉鸡的生产性能、养分代谢及其生存环境质量没有不利影响。LED光源有利于提高22~28日龄肉鸡的平均日采食量和平均日增质量,分别比荧光灯光源下的肉鸡显著增加了13.13%和13.23%(P0.05)。LED光源有利于提高22~28日龄肉鸡对饲料中粗蛋白,钙和磷的表观消化率,22日龄时,分别比荧光灯鸡舍的肉鸡显著提高了9.45%,14.90%和7.48%(P0.05),28日龄时分别提高了7.30%,6.78%和8.29%(P0.05)。试验期间LED光源鸡舍内肉鸡发病率为2.45%,显著低于荧光灯鸡舍3.57%的发病率(P0.05)。LED光源鸡舍内肉鸡死淘率为1.18%,显著低于荧光灯鸡舍2.36%的死淘率(P0.05)。同时,LED光源鸡舍的25日龄以后的NH3浓度、22日龄以后的粉尘和微生物浓度均显著低于荧光灯光源鸡舍(P0.05)。因此,LED光源有利提高肉鸡的生产性能和改善肉鸡生活空间的空气环境质量,加之LED光源在养殖生产上的应用具有安全、经济、环保的特点,值得进一步推广和应用。     

Penetration studies of propoxur and phoxim from eggshell into whole egg after experimental exposure and application in henhouses

The penetration of propoxur and phoxim from eggshell into whole egg was investigated in vitro by spraying eggs directly and in vivo after application of the compounds in henhouses. Although mean concentrations of the compounds on eggshells were up to 23000 microg kg(-1), mean residue concentrations in whole eggs were far below the current maximum residue levels (50 microg kg(-1) for propoxur and 60 microg kg(-1) for phoxim). These results provide the first evidence that propoxur and phoxim do not penetrate from eggshell into whole egg under experimental and field conditions. Subsequently, residue carry-over after egg cracking in households and during a worst-case situation in an egg-cracking plant was investigated. However, when eggs were cracked manually, a negligible contamination of whole egg values occurred. If, in an automated process, eggshells accidentally come into close contact with whole egg, very high residue levels of propoxur and phoxim may be generated time dependently. These results suggest that eggshell contact with whole egg during egg cracking must be avoided to prevent pesticide carry-over.     

Total radioactive residues and residues of [36Cl]chlorate in market size broilers

The oral administration of chlorate salts reduces the numbers of Gram-negative pathogens in gastrointestinal tracts of live food animals. Although the efficacy of chlorate salts has been demonstrated repeatedly, the technology cannot be introduced into commercial settings without first demonstrating that chlorate residues, and metabolites of chlorate remaining in edible tissues, represent a negligible risk to consumers. Typically, a first step in this risk assessment is to quantify the parent compound and to identify metabolites remaining in edible tissues of animals treated with the experimental compound. The objectives of this study were to determine the pathway(s) of chlorate metabolism in market broilers and to determine the magnitude of chlorate residues remaining in edible tissues. To this end, 12 broilers (6 weeks; 2.70+/-0.34 kg) were randomly assigned to three treatments of 7.4, 15.0, and 22.5 mM sodium [36Cl]chlorate dissolved in drinking water (n=4 broilers per treatment). Exposure to chlorate, dissolved in drinking water, occurred at 0 and 24 h (250 mL per exposure), feed was withdrawn at hour 38, water was removed at hour 48, and birds were slaughtered at hour 54 (16 h after feed removal and 8 h after water removal). The radioactivity was rapidly eliminated in excreta with 69-78% of the total administered radioactivity being excreted by slaughter. Total radioactive residues were proportional to dose in all edible tissues with chloride ion comprising greater than 98.5% of the radioactive residue for the tissue (9.4-97.8 ppm chlorate equivalents). Chlorate residues were typically greatest in the skin (0.33-0.82 ppm), gizzard (0.1-0.137 ppm), and dark muscle (0.05-0.14 ppm). Adipose, liver, and white muscle tissue contained chlorate concentrations from 0.03 to 0.13 ppm. In contrast, chlorate concentrations in excreta eliminated during the 6 h period prior to slaughter ranged from 53 to 71 ppm. Collectively, these data indicate that broilers rapidly convert chlorate residues to an innocuous metabolite, chloride ion, and that chlorate residues in excreta remain fairly high during the time around slaughter. Because the target tissue of chlorate is the lower gastrointestinal tract, the relatively high distribution of parent chlorate to inedible gastrointestinal tissues and low distribution to edible tissues is favorable for the biological activity and for food safety considerations. These data, when used in conjunction with a toxicological assessment of chlorate, can be used to determine a likely risk/benefit ratio for chlorate.     

Bioaccumulation of melamine in catfish muscle following continuous, low-dose, oral administration

In this study, catfish muscle was analyzed for melamine (MEL) and cyanuric acid (CYA) residues following experimental feeding with low doses of MEL and MEL and CYA (MEL+CYA) and with the insoluble melamine-cyanurate complex (MEL=CYA). Catfish were daily fed 0.1 mg/kg BW of MEL for 15, 28, or 42 days, 0.1 mg/kg BW of MEL+CYA for 28 days, 2.5 mg/kg BW of MEL+CYA for 14 days, or 400 mg/kg BW of MEL=CYA for 3 days. Residues in the tissue were determined by LC-MS/MS. MEL was extracted with acidic acetonitrile, followed by defatting with dichloromethane, and isolated with cation exchange solid phase extraction (SPE). For CYA analysis, fish were extracted with dilute acetic acid, defatted with hexane, and cleaned up with a graphitic carbon SPE. Catfish fed 0.1 mg/kg BW of MEL reached a maximum muscle residue concentration of 0.33 ± 0.04 mg/kg (ppm) after 28 days of continuous feeding. The same concentration was found for MEL+CYA feeding at the 0.1 mg/kg BW level for 28 days. Feeding at 2.5 mg/kg BW of MEL+CYA yielded muscle concentrations above the 2.5 mg/kg level of concern for most of the study fish. Finally, catfish fed high levels of the MEL=CYA complex (400 mg/kg BW) accumulated relatively little MEL in the muscle (0.14 ± 0.07 mg/kg) and, unlike treatment with MEL+CYA, did not form renal melamine-cyanurate crystals. Appreciable concentrations of CYA were not detected in any of the muscles tested. These studies provide data to model the bioaccumulation of triazine residues into edible fish tissue as a result of the continuous consumption of adulterated feed.     

Effect of cholecalciferol-enriched hen feed on egg quality

Eggs are one of the most important sources of vitamin D in the human diet, and their vitamin D content can be further increased by adding more vitamin D to hen feed. To investigate this issue more closely, we performed two feeding experiments. In both, zero egg samples were collected while the hens were fed regular feeds with a vitamin D content of 1720 or 4280 IU/kg. In experiment 1, egg samples were collected 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 13, 16, 23, and 30 days after beginning the high-cholecalciferol (11 200 IU/kg) feeding period. In experiment 2, samples were collected 2, 4, 6, 8, 13, 28, 56, 84, 112, 140, and 168 days after beginning the high-cholecalciferol (12 000 IU/kg) diet. The egg samples were then assayed for their cholecalciferol content, and some samples, also for the presence of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol by an HPLC method. Further, the vitamin D-fortified eggs were compared with the controls by a sensory evaluation, by conducting fatty acid and functional analyses (emulsion capacity, gel forming capacity, foaming properties) and by measuring eggshell strength. Because vitamin D can be toxic in high doses, we also performed histopathological tests on the hens at the end of experiment 2. The top cholecalciferol contents in egg yolk (ca. 30 microg/100 g) were reached 8-13 days from starting the high-cholecalciferol diet. After 112 days feeding the cholecalciferol content gradually decreased to ca. 22 microg/100 g. When added to eggs as described above, vitamin D did not affect their sensory or functional properties or their fatty acid composition. Moreover, the cholecalciferol levels used in this study appeared not to affect eggshell strength or to be harmful for hens.     

Supercritical fluid extraction of atrazine and other triazine herbicides from fortified and incurred eggs

Triazines are a class of important pre-emergent weed herbicides. Some members of this class of herbicides exhibit carcinogenic and immunotoxicity properties, which make their use controversial in areas where animal feed crops are grown. It is therefore important to determine if triazine residues are transported to animal food products in order to ascertain the extent of human exposure. Most of the current herbicide residue extraction methods are time-consuming and solvent intensive. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) using CO(2) has been used as a alternative for other residue extraction methods as a replacement for hazardous organic solvents. In this study, 10 triazines were extracted from eggs fortified at 100 ppb using unmodified supercritical CO(2) at a pressure of 10000 psi and a temperature of 50 degrees C with off-line collection on a solid phase extraction cartridge containing Florisil. Atrazine recovery averaged 90.4% with an RSD of 3.3%. The other triazines were recovered at mean levels >73%. In a separate feeding study, atrazine and two of its dealkyl metabolites were detected in the egg. The results indicate that SFE is a viable technique for isolating triazine residues from eggs, requiring only 8 mL of solvent for each analysis.     

烟酸在肉仔鸡体内的利用

雏鸡嗉囊注射3H-烟酸后,肝脏、血液中的~3H-烟酰胺下降到最大值的1/2的时间分别为19和41h,下降到最大值1/5的时间分别为78和169h。每kg饲料内添加15～60mg烟酸,并不影响肉仔鸡对烟酸的利用率,添加量高者,可以得到较高绝对数量的利用。烟酰胺在鸡体内分布较均匀,无明显贮存器官。     

注重整体布局 种鸡全程笼养

针对以往建鸡场时,由于整体布局不合理所出现的环境污染、防疫困难等问题,在新建鸡场时,根据当地的地理环境条件和卫生防疫要求进行了合理的整体布局,做到“工程防疫”;又针对肉种鸡传统的地面平养和两高一低饲养方式饲养管理困难、效果不理想、不适应大规模、高密度饲养等问题,在饲养工艺上采用了全程笼养和整场全进全出制。经过两年饲养6万套父母代肉种鸡,其效果达到成活率:育雏期98.8％～99.89％,育成期98％～99.6％,产蛋期(67周)92％;育成期整齐度84％～90％;入舍母鸡产蛋数194枚,合格种蛋180枚;种蛋平均受精率95％;节约饲料10.5％。提高了饲养密度,减少了固定资产投资,降低了每只鸡分摊的固定资产折旧等费用,使经济效益大幅度提高。     

Time required to achieve homogeneity of test substances added to dog feed.

The homogeneity of test substances in a carrier (animal feed) is a critical factor in conducting long-term feeding studies in laboratory animals. A method for determining the adequate amount of mixing to achieve homogeneity by a mixer of the type described has been determined when 2 distinctly different compounds are added to ground dog feed. Nicotinic acid and butylated hydroxyanisole at a concentration of 1% were separately mixed with the dog feed for 15, 30, 45, 60, and 120 min to determine optimum mixing time. Test portions were taken from 4 different sampling sites at each time period and analyzed in duplicate for the added substance. Four batches were prepared and the results were aggregated. Very little interbatch variability was observed. The variance of the average values from the 4 sampling sites at each time period was calculated and used as a simple, crude, but effective numerical quantity to monitor the approach to homogeneity of the mixture.     

The microbial community composition changes rapidly in the early stages of decomposition of wheat residue

It is generally accepted that during the early stages of residue decomposition, easily available compounds are decomposed, leading to a relative increase in more recalcitrant compounds in the later stages of decomposition and that these changes in substrate availability are associated with changes in microbial community composition. However most studies on residue decomposition are conducted over several weeks or months; little is known about the changes in microbial community composition in the first weeks of decomposition. To address this knowledge gap, we incubated wheat residues inoculated with a microbial suspension in mesh bags buried in sand for 30 days, with sampling on days 0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30. Of the C added with the residues, 10, 18 and 25% had been respired on days 10, 20 and 30, respectively. The sum of PLFAs (phospholipid fatty acids), as an indicator of microbial biomass, increased strongly in the first 4 days and then decreased. The concentration of bacterial fatty acids was maximal on days 2 and 4, whereas the concentration of fungal fatty acids peaked on day 15. Microbial community composition (based on PLFA patterns) changed rapidly, with significant changes in the first 8 days and from day 8 to day 20. There were no significant changes in microbial community composition after day 20. The concentration of water-soluble C decreased strongly in the first 8 days, suggesting that the rapid changes in microbial community in this period are related to the changes in water-soluble C. Residue C chemistry, assessed by ¹³C NMR spectroscopy, changed little during the incubation period. This study showed that microbial community composition in decomposing residues changes rapidly in the first 1-2 weeks, which is, at least partly, the result of competition for the easily available compounds in the water-soluble fraction. After depletion of the water-soluble compounds, the microbial community composition changes more slowly.     

Metabolism of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid in laying hens and lactating goats

2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) labeled with (14)C was found to be rapidly eliminated by laying hens and lactating goats dosed orally for 7 consecutive days at 18 mg/kg of food intake and for 3 consecutive days at 483 mg/kg of food intake, respectively. Excreta of hens and goats contained >90% of the total dose within 24 h after the final dose. Tissue residues were low and accounted for <0.1% of the dose in these animals. For hens, the residues in muscle, liver, and eggs (0.006-0.030 ppm) were lower than those found in fat and kidney (0.028-0.714 ppm), 2,4-D equivalents. The tissue with highest residue in goat was the kidney at 1.44 ppm, 2,4-D equivalents. Milk, liver, composite fat, and composite muscle had significantly lower residue levels of 0.202, 0.224, 0.088, and 0.037 ppm, respectively. The most abundant tissue residue was 2,4-D and acid/base releasable residues of 2,4-D. A minor metabolite was identified as 2,4-dichlorophenol.     

蛋鸡舍臭气组成及不同管理措施对臭气特性的影响

随着中国蛋鸡养殖规模化的快速发展,蛋鸡场排出的臭气已成为影响周边环境质量的重要因素,但有限的关于蛋鸡舍臭气特性的研究严重制约着臭气污染程度的量化和除臭措施的制定,因此该研究通过对2种不同类型蛋鸡舍（商品蛋鸡舍和种用蛋鸡舍）的臭气进行综合分析,以探究不同管理措施（无管理操作、喂料、喷雾消毒、清粪）对臭气组成及其对臭气贡献率的影响。结果表明,2种类型蛋鸡舍的臭气组成和浓度相似,蛋鸡舍内臭气成分的浓度从高到低为NH3、挥发性脂肪酸（Volatile Fatty Acids,VFA）、挥发性含硫化合物（Volatile Sulfur Compounds,VSC）、酚类、吲哚类和胺类,对臭味贡献率从大到小为吲哚类、酚类、VSC、VFA、胺类和NH3。无管理操作和喂料过程中臭气组成和浓度相似,饲料的味道对蛋鸡舍臭气浓度影响较小。喷雾消毒和清粪过程中NH3、吲哚类和臭气浓度均显著增加（P<0.05）。此外,粪污在清粪带滞留期间,NH3浓度增加了6倍,胺类、VSC、吲哚类、酚类和VFA的浓度相对稳定。除NH3以外的其他成分主要来自肠道微生物的降解,对臭气贡献率高达99.99%,是臭味的主要来源。     

笼养肉鸡不同季节CH4和CO2排放研究

为研究规模化肉鸡场温室气体排放系数,给我国畜牧业温室气体清单编制和选择减排技术提供依据,选择山东某商业化肉鸡养殖场,对肉鸡生产过程中CO2和CH4的排放情况进行了研究。利用多功能气体分析仪对肉鸡舍CH4和CO2的浓度进行测定,肉鸡舍通风量测定则采用风机风量现场测定系统,根据不同季节连续5d测试结果计算提出肉鸡的CH4和CO2排放因子。结果表明：肉鸡在36-42d龄间的CH4和CO2的排放因子分别为（0．276＋0．19）g·d^-1·bird^-1（58．9＋37．2g·d^-1·AU^-1）,154．4＋45．7g·d^-1·bird^-1（33．5＋8．0kg·d^-1·AU^-1）,不同季节CH4排放因子存在显著差异,夏季最高为0．552g·d^-1·bird^-1,冬季最低为0．111g·d^-1·bird^-1,春季和秋季分别为0．187g·d^-1·bird^-1和0．254g·d^-1·bird^-1;CO2排放因子夏秋季节差异不显著,分别为186．8g·d^-1·bird^-1和179．8g·d^-1·bird^-1,但显著高于春季（163．4g·d^-1·bird^-1）和冬季（87．4g·d^-1·bird^-1）;分析表明,鸡舍通风量与CH4排放因子呈现显著线性相关关系,以CO2形式损失的碳（C）占总饲料碳（C）投入的56．1％,是碳（C）损失的主要部分,仅有占饲料碳（C）投入0．27％的碳以CH4形式损失。     

Soil phosphorus pools in the detritusphere of plant residues with different C/P ratio—influence of drying and rewetting

Little is known about the effect of drying and rewetting (DRW) on phosphorus (P) pools in the detritusphere, the soil adjacent to plant residues. Two plant residues differing in their potential to release P during decomposition were used: mature barley straw, C/P 255 or young faba bean, C/P 38. Residues were placed between two PVC caps filled with soil at 50% water-holding capacity with open ends covered by fine mesh onto which the residues were placed. The open ends of the two PVC caps were pressed together with residues in between. For the unamended controls, no residues were placed between the meshes. After 2 weeks incubation, the soil was separated from the residues and then either dried and kept dry for 2 weeks followed by rapid rewetting to 50% water-holding capacity (WHC) rewetting (RW) or maintained at 50% of WHC constantly moist (CM). Bioavailable P pools (readily available P pools: CaCl₂- and anion exchange-P; P bound to soil particles: citrate- and HCl-P; acid phosphomonoesterase- and microbial-P) were measured in dry soil and 1, 7, and 14 days after rewetting. Rewetting of dry soils induced a respiration flush on the first day after which respiration rates declined to those in CM. Compared to the unamended soil, the flush was about 75% higher with barley and more than twofold higher with faba bean. P pools were 3–20-fold higher with faba bean than with barley or in the control. At the end of the dry period, most P pools were higher in dry soil compared to CM. Rewetting had little effect on P pools 1, 7, and 14 days after rewetting compared to CM. To investigate if rewetting induced a short pulse of available P, a second experiment was carried out. As in the first experiment, faba bean detritusphere soil and control were generated and then dried or kept at 50% WHC for 2 weeks. Before rewetting, anion exchange membranes (AEM) were placed in the soil which were removed one, 2 or 4 days after rewetting. The P concentration on the AEM was more than threefold higher with faba bean than the control. One day after rewetting, the P concentration on the AEM with faba bean was about threefold higher in RW than in CM, but did not differ between RW and CM in the control. Four days after rewetting, nearly all P pools with faba bean were 10–30% lower in RW than in CM, except citrate-P which was about 5% higher in RW. We conclude that rewetting induces a short pulse of available P if the P pool concentration is high as in the detritusphere of faba bean. If P is removed from the soil (by binding to AEM or uptake by plants), rewetting can induce depletion of P pools compared to CM.