氟罗沙星对鸡败血支原体和大肠杆菌混合感染的疗效

以人工诱发鸡败血霉形体和大肠杆菌混合感染模型,评价氟罗沙星的疗效。按每升水加入２５ｍｇ、５０ｍｇ及１００ｍｇ氟罗沙星及５０ｍｇ环丙沙星的用量给病鸡饮水给药,连续５天,对混合感染鸡的治愈率分别是８６．７％、９０．０％、９０．０％及８３．３％,而感染对照组的死亡率为６３．３％;用药组的相对增重率分别为１０１．３％、１０５．７％、１０７．２％及１０２．４％,均显著高于感染对照组（５８５．５％,Ｐ〈０．０１）     

氟甲砜霉素对实验性鸡巴氏杆菌病的药效研究

以两倍稀释法测定氟甲砜霉素及甲砜霉素对鸡巴氏杆菌的最小抑菌浓度分别为０．２５μｇ／ｍＬ和１．２５μｇ／ｍＬ。按１０,２０和３０ｍｇ／ｋｇ的氟甲砜霉素及３０ｍｇ／ｋｇ的甲砜霉素分别给实验性巴氏杆菌病患鸡肌注,每天给药一次,共５ｄ。药物对鸡巴氏杆菌病的治愈率分别为９３．３％,１００％,１００％和１００％,而感染对照组鸡全部死亡。用药组与感染对照组间疗效差异极显著     

洛美沙星对实验性鸡葡萄球菌病的药效研究

为了探讨国内新近研制的氟喹诺酮类长半减期药物洛美沙星（Ｌｏｍｅｆｌｏｘａｃｉｎ）对鸡葡萄球菌病的疗效进行了本研究。以试管２倍稀释法测定洛美沙星及对照药对金黄色葡萄球菌的最小抑菌浓度，然后用洛美沙星、环丙沙星、恩诺沙星进行饮水给药５ｄ的疗效试验。结果表明，洛美沙星、环丙沙星、恩诺沙星、诺氟沙星、红霉素对鸡金黄色葡萄球菌Ｃ５６０１１株的最小抑菌浓度分别为１．０、０．１２５、０．２５、１．０、３２ｍｇ／Ｌ。２５、５０、１００ｍｇ／Ｌ洛美沙星饮水给药对鸡葡萄球菌病的治愈率分别为６６．７％、８０％、７６．７％，有效率分别为９０％、９６．７％、９６．７％。５０ｍｇ／Ｌ环丙沙星、恩诺沙星的治愈率则分别为７６．７％、８０％，有效率分别为９３．３％、９６．７％。５０、１００ｍｇ／Ｌ洛美沙星及５０ｍｇ／Ｌ恩诺沙星３个饮水给药组鸡的增重显著高于感染对照组。     

洛美沙星对实验性鸡葡萄球菌病的药效研究

为了给兽医临床推广应用国内新近研制的氟喹诺酮类长半减期药物洛美沙星（Ｌｏｍｅｆｌｏｘａｃｉｎ），特别是用洛美沙星防治鸡葡萄球菌病提供依据，首先以试管２倍稀释法测定了洛美沙星及对照药对金黄色葡萄球菌的最小抑菌浓度，然后观察了洛美沙星、环丙沙星、恩诺沙星饮水给药５ｄ对实验性鸡葡萄球菌病的疗效。结果，洛美沙星、环丙沙星、恩诺沙星、诺氟沙星、红霉素对鸡金黄色葡萄球菌Ｃ５６０１１株的最小抑菌浓度分别为１．０、０．１２５、０．２５、１．０、３２ｍｇ／Ｌ。２５、５０、１００ｍｇ／Ｌ洛美沙星饮水给药对鸡葡萄球菌病的治愈率分别为６６．７％、８０．０％、７６．７％，有效率分别为９０．０％、９６．７％、９６．７％。５０ｍｇ／Ｌ环丙沙星、５０ｍｇ／Ｌ恩诺沙星的治愈率则分别为７６．７％、８０．０％，有效率分别为９３．３％、９６．７％。５０、１００ｍｇ／Ｌ洛美沙星及５０ｍｇ／Ｌ恩诺沙星３个饮水给药组的增重显著高于感染对照组。结果表明，洛美沙星饮水给药治疗鸡葡萄球菌病以５０ｍｇ／Ｌ的剂量为宜。     

乙基环丙沙星对实验性感染猪链球菌病及水肿病的药效学研究

本文报道以国内新近研制的畜禽专用氟喹诺酮类抗菌药──乙基环丙沙星（Ｅｎｒｏｆ－ｌｏｘａｃｉｎ），进行对实验性感染猪链球菌病及水肿病的药效学研究（２３０头猪）。试管两倍稀释法测得乙基环丙沙星对兰氏Ｃ群类马链球菌（Ｃ＿（５５１２０））和猪大肠杆菌（Ｏ＿（５４））的最小抑菌浓度（ＭＩＣ）分别是０．８及０．０５μｇ／ｍｌ。肌注给药对猪链球菌病和水肿病的实验性治疗结果表明，乙基环丙沙星低、中、高剂量组（分别为１．２５、２．５、１０ｍｇ／ｋｇ）用药６０（每天２次）对猪链球病的治愈率分别是５０％、９５％及９５％，而链球菌感染对照组的死亡率为７０％；乙基环丙沙星低、中、高剂量组（分别为１．２５、２．５、１０ｍｇ／ｋｇ）用药３ｄ（每隔１２ｈ给药一次）对猪水肿病的治愈率分别是８５％、９０％及９０％；而大肠杆菌感染对照组的死亡率为９０％。     

国产伊维菌素口服液对绵羊寄生虫的驱除试验

本文利用中国农业大学生产的伊维菌素（Ｉｖｅｒｍｅｃｔｉｎ）口服液，选择１．５～２．０岁严重感染消化道线虫和某些外寄生虫的绵羊１００只，分别口服０．１５ｍｇ／ｋｇ、０．２５ｍｇ／ｋｇ和０．３０ｍｇ／ｋｇ体重的剂量，同时用进口害获灭（Ｉｖｏｍｅｃ）以０．２ｍｇ／ｋｇ体重皮下注射作对照。结果表明：①０．２５ｍｇ／ｋｇ和０．３０ｍｇ／ｋｇ口服液对消化道线虫的虫卵转阴率、虫卵减少率和驱虫率均为１００％，对羊狂蝇蛆、痒螨病和羊虱能全部杀死；②０．１５ｍｇ／ｋｇ口服液对奥斯特线虫的虫卵减少率仅为９２．３％。对奥斯特线虫、毛圆线虫、毛首线虫的驱除率分别为９８．５％、９９．２％、９３．３％。对其余线虫的驱虫率均为１００％。其驱虫效果略次于０．２５ｍｇ／ｋｇ、０．３０ｍｇ／ｋｇ两剂量组；③对照药物害获灭对奥斯特线虫的虫卵减少率和驱虫率分别为９７．６％和９５．５％，对其余线虫的驱虫率也为１００％。总之，从成本考虑，国产伊维菌素０．１５ｍｇ／ｋｇ口服液口服经济、实惠、高效、安全     

氧氟沙星饮水治疗鸡败血霉形体—大肠杆菌感染的药代动力学分析

选用３２０只３３日龄石岐杂健康鸡，分成健康对照、感染对照、氧氟沙星中剂量和高剂量４组。感染鸡接种霉形体和大肠杆菌后，中剂量和高剂量组分别以１００ｍｇ／Ｌ和２００ｍｇ／Ｌ氧氟沙星饮水给药，在试验开始后２～５ｄ，每次给药后２ｈ和８ｈ剖杀，采用ＨＰＬＣ测定血药浓度。结果，血药浓度在中剂量组分别为（１．２６±０．３２），（０．７５±０．２３）ｍｇ／Ｌ，高剂量组分别为（１．６８±０．４２），（１．３５±０．０４）ｍｇ／Ｌ，中、高剂量组在给药后２～５ｄ平均血药浓度分别为（１．０１±０．２７），（１．５２±０．２１）ｍｇ／Ｌ。停药后血药消除缓慢，两组ｔ１２分别为３．１１，４．３３ｈ，ＡＵＣ为４．７６，６．４０ｍｇ·Ｌ－１·ｈ－１，Ｔｃｐ（ｔｈｅｒ）为２３．３４，２３．７２ｈ。本研究表明，氧氟沙星饮水给药对鸡霉形体和大肠杆菌合并感染具有显著的临床效果，从经济观点看，饮水给药以５０～１００ｍｇ／Ｌ，每天１次，连续４ｄ为好。     

氧氟沙星对霉形体与大肠杆菌合并感染鸡的药效学研究

以试管两倍稀释法测得氧氟沙星及其对照药物恩诺沙星、洛美沙星和强力霉素对鸡败血霉形体的最小抑菌浓度分别为０．００６２５、０．０２５、０．４和０．４ｍｇ／Ｌ。５０、１００、２００ｍｇ／Ｌ氧氟沙星、５０ｍｇ／Ｌ恩诺沙星、５０ｍｇ／Ｌ洛美沙星和１００ｍｇ／Ｌ强力霉素连续５ｄ饮水给药,对人工合并感染败血霉形体和大肠杆菌病鸡的治愈率分别是９３．３％、９６．７％、９６．７％、１００％、９６．７％和８３．３％,感     

5种药物防治鸡白痢的对比试验

１材料和方法１．１药物及使用方法１．１．１呼拉杀星粉剂：广州市白云兽药厂生产。以１００ｍｇ／ｋｇ混饲给药。约药５天,停药２天,再给药５天。１．１．２禽菌灵：广东省茂名市兽药厂生产。以０．４％浓度混饲给药。给药５天,停药２天,再给药５天。１．１．３氟哌...     

金霉素,泰妙菌素联合应用对鸡败血霉形体病的药效研究

观察了金霉素、泰妙菌素联合用药的体外抗鸡败血霉形体的作用与体内治疗鸡败血霉形体病的疗效。体外抑菌试验中，金霉素、泰妙菌素、金霉素与泰妙菌素（３∶１）合用，对鸡败血霉形体ＢＧ４４Ｔ株的最小抑菌浓度分别为２．０、０．０１６、０．０１６ｍｇ／Ｌ；棋盘法试验进一步证明，金霉素、泰妙菌素合用对鸡败血霉形体ＢＧ４４Ｔ株的ＦＩＣ指数为０．５～０．７５，两药表现有协同作用。饮水给药对实验性鸡败血霉形体病的治疗试验表明，金霉素、泰妙菌素按３∶１合用，以２００、１００ｍｇ／Ｌ剂量给药５ｄ，在死亡率、治愈率、有效率等几个指标方面优于泰妙菌素、金霉素单独给药（２００ｍｇ／Ｌ）。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.