Potassium Fixation and Release Characteristics of Some Benchmark Soil Series under Rice–Wheat Cropping System in the Indo‐Gangetic Plains of Northwestern India

Abstract

Potassium (K) fixation and release in soil are important issues in long‐term sustainability of a cropping system. Fixation and release behavior of potassium were studied in the surface and subsurface horizons in five benchmark soil series, viz. Dhar, Gurdaspur, Naura, Ladowal, and Nabha, under rice–wheat cropping system in the Indo‐Gangetic plains of India. Potassium fixation was noted by adding six rates of K varying from 0 to 500 mg kg^?1 soil in plastic beakers while K release characteristics were studied by repeated extractions with 1 M HNO₃ and 1 M NH₄OAc extractants. The initial status of K was satisfactory to adequate. Potassium fixation of added K increased with the rate of added K irrespective of soil mineralogy and soil depth. Soils rich in K (Ladowal and Nabha) fixed lower amounts (18–42%) of added K as compared to Gurdaspur, Dhar, and Naura (44.6–86.4%) soils low in K. The unit fertilizer requirement for unit increase in available K was more in low‐K soils. The study highlights the need for more studies on K fixation in relation to the associated minerals in a particular soil. Potassium‐release parameters such as total extractable K, total step K, and CR‐K varied widely in different soil series, indicating wide variation in the K‐supplying capacity of these soils. K released with 1 M NH₄OAc extractant was 20–33% of that obtained with 1 M HNO₃. Total extractable K using 1 M HNO₃ varied from 213 to 528 mg kg^?1 and NH₄OAc‐extractable K ranged from 71 to 312 mg kg^?1 soil in surface and subsurface layers of different soil series. The Ladowal and Nabha series showed higher rates of K release than Gurdaspur, Dhar, and Naura series, indicating their greater K‐supplying capacity.     

Evaluation of Extractants and Quantity–Intensity Relationship for Estimation of Available Potassium in Some Calcareous Soils of Western Iran

Accurate estimation of the available potassium (K⁺) supplied by calcareous soils in arid and semi‐arid regions is becoming more important. Exchangeable K⁺, determined by ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc), might not be the best predictor of the soil K⁺ available to crops in soils containing micaceous minerals. The effectiveness of different extraction methods for the prediction of K‐supplying capacities and quantity–intensity relationships was studied in 10 calcareous soils in western Iran. Total K⁺ uptake by wheat grown in the greenhouse was used to measure plant‐available soil K⁺. The following methods extracted increasingly higher average amounts of soil K⁺: 0.025 M H₂SO₄ (45 mg K⁺ kg^?1), 1 M NaCl (92 mg K⁺ kg^?1), 0.01 M CaCl₂ (104 mg K⁺ kg^?1), 0.1 M BaCl₂ (126 mg K⁺ kg^?1), and 1 M NH₄OAc (312 mg K⁺ kg^?1). Potassium extracted by 0.01 M CaCl₂, 1 M NaCl, 0.1 M BaCl₂, and 0.025 M H₂SO₄ showed higher correlation with K⁺ uptake by the crop (P < 0.01) than did NH₄OAc (P < 0.05), which is used to extract K⁺ in the soils of the studied area. There were significant correlations among exchangeable K⁺ adsorbed on the planar surfaces of soils (labile K⁺) and K⁺ plant uptake and K⁺ extracted by all extractants. It would appear that both 0.01 M CaCl₂ and 1 M NaCl extractants and labile K⁺ may provide the most useful prediction of K⁺ uptake by plants in these calcareous soils containing micaceous minerals.     

Release Kinetics of Nonexchangeable Potassium by Different Extractants from Soils of Varying Mineralogy and Depth

Abstract

Nonexchangeable potassium (K) release kinetics of six major benchmark soil series of India as affected by mineralogy of clay and silt fractions, soil depth and extraction media was investigated. The cumulative release of nonexchangeable K was greater in smectitic soils (353 mg K kg^?1 at 0‐ to 15‐cm depth and 296 mg K kg^?1 at 15‐ to 30‐cm depth, averaged for 2 soils and 3 extractants) than in illitic (151 mg K kg^?1 at 0‐ to 15‐cm depth and 112 mg K kg^?1 at 15‐ to 30‐cm depth) and kaolinitic (194 mg K kg^?1 at 0‐ to 15‐cm depth and 167 mg K kg^?1 at 15‐ to 30‐cm depth) soils. Surface soils exhibited larger cumulative K release in smectitic and illitic soils, whereas subsurface soils had larger K release in kaolinitic soils. Among the extractants, 0.01 M citric acid extracted a larger amount of nonexchangeable K followed by 0.01 M CaCl₂ and 0.01 M HCl. The efficiency of citric acid extractant was greater in illitic soils than in smectitic and kaolinitic soils. Release kinetics of nonexchangeable K conformed fairly well to parabolic and first‐order kinetic models. The curve pattern of parabolic diffusion model suggested diffusion controlled kinetics in all the soils, with a characteristic initial fast rate up to 7 h followed by a slower rate. Greater nonexchangeable K release rates in smectitic soils, calculated from the first‐order equation (b=91.13×10^?4 h^?1), suggested that the layer edge and wedge zones and swelling nature of clay facilitated the easier exchange. In contrast to smectitic soils, higher release rate constants obtained from parabolic diffusion equation (b=39.23×10^?3 h^?1) in illitic soils revealed that the low amount of exchangeable K on clay surface and larger amount of interlayer K allowed greater diffusion gradients, thus justifying the better fit of first‐order kinetic equation in smectitic soils and parabolic diffusion equation in illitic soils.     

Effect of Oxalic and Citric Acids on Zinc Release Kinetic in Two Calcareous Soils

Rate of zinc (Zn) release from solid to solution phase by organic acids can influence Zn availability in calcareous soils. The objective of the present study was to investigate the effect of different concentrations (1.1, 2.2, and 3.3 mM) of oxalic acid and citric acid on the kinetic release of Zn from two calcareous soils from Eastern Iran. The two organic acids showed significant difference in Zn release from studied soils. Cumulative Zn release during 72 h ranged from 5.85 to 10.4 mg kg^?1 in soil 1 and ranged from 8.7 to 16.9 mg kg^?1 in soil 2 using different concentrations of oxalic acid. The amount of cumulative Zn release after 72 h in soil 1 ranged from 13.65 to 28.77 mg kg^?1 and from 17.63 to 23.13 mg kg^?1 when different concentrations of citric acid was used. In general, Citric acid released 38% more Zn from soils than oxalic acid. The release of Zn from soils increased with citric acid concentration but decreased with increasing of oxalic acid concentrations in the solution. The simplified Elovich equation best described Zn release as a function of time (r² = 0.93 and SE = 0.78). From the present study, Zn release from soils can be limited by the higher concentration of oxalic acid, while citric acid is suitable for enhancing soil lability of Zn.     

Measuring and simulating pH buffer capacity of calcareous soils using empirical and mechanistic models

ABSTRACT

We studied (i) the pH buffer capacity (pHBC) of calcareous soils varied widely in calcite and texture, (ii) the contribution of soil properties to pHBC and (iii) the significance of using a model based on calcite dissolution to estimate the pHBC of calcareous soils. The pHBC of soils was measured by adding several rates of HCl to soils (100–6500 mM H⁺ kg^–1), in a 0.01 M CaCl₂ background and an equilibration time of 24 h. The pHBC (mM H⁺ kg^–1 pH^?1) varied from 55 to 3383, with the mean of 1073. The pHBC of the soils was strongly correlated with soil CaCO₃ equivalent (calcite) (r = 0.94), sand (r = ?0.72), silt (r = 0.60), EC (r = 0.63), pH (r = 0.55), and weakly (r = 0.37) but significantly with clay content. The attained pHBC values indicated that calcite was probably the main buffer system in these soils. The chemical equilibrium model successfully predicted pH titration curves based on calcite dissolution, indicating buffering of acid inputs in the calcareous soils is dominated by calcite dissolution. The model can be used to simulate acidification of calcareous soils and to provide information for making environmental management decisions.     

动力学模型在土壤钾素释放特征描述中的运用及其与化学方法提取的钾素之间的相关性研究

Potassium (K) release characteristics in soil play a significant role in supplying available K. Information on K-release characteristics in soils of central Iran is limited. The objectives of this study were to determine K release characteristics and correlations of K release rate constants with K extracted by different chemical methods in surface soils of ten calcareous soils of central Iran. The kinetics of K release in the soils was determined by successive extraction with 0.01 mol L^-1 CaCl₂ in a period of 2--2 017 h at 25±1 ^oC. Soil K was extracted by distilled water, 0.5 mol L-1 MgNO₃, 0.002 mol L^-1 SrCl₂, 0.1 mol L^-1 BaCl₂, 0.01 mol L^-1 CaCl₂, 1 mol L^-1 NaCl, 1 mol L^-1 boiling HNO₃, 1 mol L^-1 NH₄OAC, Mehlich 1, 0.002 mol L^-1 SrCl₂ 0.05 mol L^-1 citric acid, and ammonium bicarbonate-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (AB-DTPA). A plot of cumulative amounts of K released showed a discontinuity in slope at 168 h. Thus, two equations were applied to two segments of the total reaction time (2--168 and 168--2017 h). Cumulative amounts of K released ranged from 55 to 299 mg kg^-1 in 2--168 h and from 44 to 119 mg kg^-1 in 168--2 017 h. Release kinetics of K in the two time segments conformed fairly well to parabolic diffusion, simplified Elovich, and power function models. There was a wide variation in the K release rate constants. Increasingly higher average concentrations of soil K were extracted by distilled water, Mehlich 1, SrCl₂, CaCl₂, SrCl₂ + citric acid, AB-DTPA, MgNO₃, NaCl, NH₄OAc, BaCl₂ and HNO₃. Potassium release rate constants were significantly correlated with K extracted. The results of this study showed that information obtained from mathematical modeling in two reaction time segments can help to estimate the K-supplying power of soils.     

Extractable Concentrations of Cobalt from Serpentine Soils with Several Single‐Extraction Procedures

In this study, we selected three soil pedons on the shoulder, backslope, and footslope along a serpentine toposequence to measure cobalt (Co) extractability using six single‐extraction procedures. These extraction procedures are distilled water, 0.11 M acetic acid in the first step of the BCR sequential extraction (BCR1), 1 M ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc; pH 7.0), 0.01 M calcium chloride (CaCl₂), diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid (DTPA), and 0.1 M hydrochloric acid (HCl). Although the Co concentrations in the water extracts of the study soils ranged from 0.15 to 0.93 mg kg^?1, those with HCl extraction can be up to 22.1 mg kg^?1. The extractable Co concentrations in the study soils demonstrate that the extraction capacity is in the order HCl > DTPA > CaCl₂ ? NH₄OAc > BCR1 > H₂O. The percentages of extractable Co after applying the six single‐extraction procedures reveal that Co mobility is greatest in the soils on the backslope, moderate on the footslope, and least mobile on the shoulder.     

Different Fractions of Soil Potassium,Olsen Phosphorus,and Available Sulfur Status of Intensively Cultivated Berpura Soil Series of India and Nutrient Indexing of Rice Crop

Berpura alluvial soil series of the Indo‐Gangetic Plains is situated in the Ambala District of the Haryana State of India. Soils of this series had medium concentrations of both potassium (K) and phosphorus (P) and large concentrations of sulfur (S) before 1970. To study different fractions of K, Olsen P, and 0.15% calcium chloride (CaCl₂)–extractable (available) S of soils of the Berpura series and to create nutrient indexing of rice crops growing on this series, surface soil samples were collected from 100 farmers' fields after the harvest of the wheat crop in 2005. During kharif season of same year, samples of upper two leaves at anthesis growth stage of rice crop were also collected from the same 100 farmers' fields that had earlier been sampled for soil analysis. Analysis of soil samples showed more K depletion in soils of this series, of which 86% of farmers' fields were deficient in ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) K (available K). Thirty and 62% of leaf samples of the rice crop growing on the 100 fields of this series were extremely and moderately deficient in K, respectively. The mean values of water‐soluble, exchangeable, nonexchangeable, lattice, and total K were 10.6, 30.3, 390.0, 8204, and 8635 mg kg^?1, respectively. In soils of this series, 0.123, 0.351, 4.517, and 95.009% of total K were found in water‐soluble, exchangeable, nonexchangeable, and lattice K forms, respectively. On the other hand, long‐term farmers' practice of more application of P fertilizer in wheat crop has resulted in P buildup in the soils of the Berpura series. Olsen P in soils of farmers' fields of this series ranged from 9.0 to 153.0 mg kg^?1, with the mean value of 41.8 mg kg^?1. Eighty‐two percent of leaf samples of rice crops grown on this series without application of P fertilizer were sufficient in P. The analysis of soil and rice crops for P and K proved the suitability of 0.5 M sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) and 1 N NH₄OAc for extracting available P and K, respectively, in alluvial soils of the Indo‐Gangetic Plains. The 0.15% CaCl₂–extractable S in this soil ranged from 9.6 to 307 mg kg^?1 with a mean value of 34.6 mg kg^?1. Four and 26% of soil samples had low and medium, respectively, in 0.15% CaCl₂–extractable S. S deficiency was recorded in rice crops, as 29% of the leaf samples were extremely deficient in S and 58% were moderately deficient in S. This indicated the unsuitability of the 0.15% CaCl₂ to extract available S from the Udic ustochrept utilized for cultivation of rice crops.     

Factors affecting potassium fixation in calcareous soils of southern Iran

Potassium fixation capacity and mineralogical analysis of 24 representative soils, collected from southern Iran, were studied. Potassium fixation analysis was performed by adding six rates of K from 0 to 1000 mg kg^?1 soil in a plastic beaker and shaking for 24 h. Mineralogical analysis showed that the clay fractions were dominated by smectite, chlorite, mica, palygorskite, vermiculite and quartz. In general, the studied soils fixed 8.5–55% of the added K. The potassium fixation capacity of the studied soils was significantly correlated with smectite content (r ² = 0.87), clay content (r ² = 0.60), cation-exchange capacity (r ² = 0.79) and NH₄OAc-K. Wetting and drying treatment and incubation time had significant effects on K fixation. The average percentage increase in K fixation following the wetting and drying treatment was 24 and 30% for surface and subsurface soils, respectively. The average percentage increase in K fixation with increasing residence time was 79 and 56% for surface and subsurface soils, respectively. Because K fixation is a diffusion process, time and increased concentration of soluble K (because of soil drying) are factors affecting the rate of K diffusion from a soil solution to the interlayer positions of the expansible 2:1 clay minerals.     

Soil Potassium‐Release Characteristics and the Correlation of its Parameters with Garlic Plant Indices

Abstract

Potassium (K)‐release characteristics (PRC) of soil play a significant role in supplying available K. Information about PRC in the Hamadan soils is limited. The objective of this research was to study the PRC in nine soils from the Hamadan province by successive extraction with 0.01 M CaCl₂ over a period of 2000 h. The correlation of kinetic equation rate constants with soil properties and garlic indices was also studied. The release of K was initially rapid. More than 60% of the total K released during the first 168 h. The amount of K released after 168 h varied among soils and ranged from 292.8 to 736.8 mg kg^?1. The amount of K released after 2000 h was significantly correlated with K extracted by 1 M HNO₃, 0.01 M CaCl₂, and 0.1 M BaCl₂, whereas it was not significantly correlated with other soil properties. Potassium‐release characteristics were evaluated using five kinetic equations. Statistical analysis showed that the Elovich equation described the K‐release kinetics. A plot of other equations shows a discontinuity in slope at 168 h. Thus, two equations were applied to segments of the total reaction time (2 to 168 and 168 to 2000 h). The release‐rate constants (slope) in segment 1 are higher than in segment 2. The release‐rate constant of the Elovich equation and the zero‐order equation in two segments were significantly correlated with 1 M HNO₃, 0.01 M CaCl₂, and 0.1 M BaCl₂. Rate constants of the other equations were not significantly correlated with soil properties. The release‐rate constants of the Elovich equation and release‐rate constants of the zero‐order equation in two segments were significantly correlated with garlic indices. Rate constants of other equations were not significantly correlated with garlic indices. The results of this research showed that the Elovich and zero‐order equations can be used to describe K‐release characteristics.     

The effects of wetting and drying cycles,temperature and extracting solutions on measured potassium fixation in soils of two regions of morocco

Abstract

Five representative soils with contrasting physical, chemical, and mineralogical characteristics from the Chaouia and Gharb regions of northwestern Morocco were selected for a study of the effects of wetting and drying cycles (W‐D), temperature, amount of K⁺ added, and extracting solution on the determination of K‐fixation. With drying at 40°C and the use of of 0.2 M CaCl₂ for K⁺ extractions, the measured amount of K⁺ fixed increased with increased number of W‐D cycles when high quantities of K were added. The drying, however, caused release of K⁺ when no or small amounts of K⁺ were added even for soils not containing mica (illite). With 2 W‐D cycles, measured K⁺ fixation decreased with increasing drying temperature from 40^oC to 100^oC regardless of the extracting solution when the calculated fixation was based on the initial extractable K⁺ rather than the quantity extracted from the zero treatment after wetting and drying. Also, significant differences in K⁺ fixation existed between extracting solutions at any given temperature. Because of the different drying temperatures and extracting salts used it is difficult to compare results of K⁺ fixation reported in different studies. Frequent changes in temperature and soil water content during the growing season in Mediterranean climates may have an important influence on K⁺ availability.     

Effect of Field Aging on Nickel Concentration in Soil Solutions

Abstract

The effect of field aging on nickel (Ni) concentration in soil solutions was studied on three soils, with pH 4.5, 6.1, and 7.6, that were spiked with Ni and aged outdoors for 5, 10, and 15 months. Field aging resulted in a minor decrease in total Ni content and a dramatic decrease in Ni concentration in soil solution. Nickel release isotherms in field‐aged soils differ from those in freshly spiked ones. The decrease in soluble Ni in noncalcareous soils at Ni loadings from 25 to 4800 mg kg^?1 followed a first‐order kinetic equation. In calcareous soil the observed relationships imply that soluble Ni may be controlled by dissolution of a surface precipitate either on the surface of soil carbonates [NiCO₃ or NiCO₃ · 2Ni(OH)₂] or on the surface of clay minerals (Ni‐aluminum double‐layer hydroxide).     

Non-exchangeable potassium release and its removal in foot-hill soils of North-west Himalayas

In the present investigation, soils representing ten locations and three agro-climatic zones of foot-hills of north-west Himalayas were studied to assess Non-exchangeable Potassium (NEK) reserves, its release and influence of K-fixing capacity and clay minerals on NEK release. Maximum release of non-exchangeable K was obtained in temperate zone soils (295 mg kg^− 1) followed by intermediate zone (227 mg kg^− 1) and sub-tropical zone soils (106 mg kg^− 1), having relative soil quality index (RSQI) values of 85, 80 and 65, respectively. The quantitative analysis of clay minerals, through XRD technique, revealed that the temperate soils have more illite (averaging 62%) which holds well as a reason for high NEK reserves of 1556 mg kg^− 1 in these soils in comparison to intermediate (having illite averaging 53%) and sub-tropical (having illite averaging to 49%) soils having NEK amounting to 1022 and 918 mg kg^− 1, respectively. In order to study the NEK removal from the soils under investigation, maize was grown as a test crop and potassium was applied through four treatments having four levels of K (0, 15, 30 and 60 mg kg^− 1) applied as KCl. The crop demonstrated significant response in terms of dry matter yield up to 30 mg kg^− 1 in sub-tropical and intermediate soils while no such response was obtained in temperate soils. The percent NEK removed by maize crop from NEK reserves was 14, 25 and 20% in sub-tropical, intermediate and temperate soils, respectively. The information about NEK release, its removal as well as its relationship with K fixing capacity, clay minerals and RSQI can be used for understanding the K buffering potential of soils especially under adverse soil and climatic conditions that prevail in southwest India. Besides, the regression equations developed can be used for predicting NEK release on the basis of K fixing capacity and clay mineralogical composition.     

Radiocesium interception potential (RIP) of smectite and kaolin reference minerals containing illite (micaceous mineral) as impurity

Cesium-137 (¹³⁷Cs) is strongly adsorbed on clay minerals, especially on illite. The adsorption of Cs⁺ on reference clay minerals, however, has not been fully investigated in relation to the presence of illite. The objective of this study was to clarify the effect of impurities (i.e., illite and vermiculite), present in reference smectite group minerals and kaolin minerals, on the retention of Cs⁺. The clay mineralogy of the reference minerals was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). The radiocesium interception potential (RIP) was measured as an index of the Cs⁺ retention ability of clays. The content of illite in clay was represented by the total potassium (K) content given that illite is a major source of K in the clay fraction. The content of vermiculite in clay was represented by the Cs fixation capacity induced by Cs saturation followed by heating of samples at 110°C. Metabentonite and beidellite gave extremely high RIP values compared with other smectite group minerals, although a peak for illite (at 1.0 nm) was not observed in XRD analysis. The reference smectite and kaolin minerals showed a range of RIP values, even though their RIP values are theoretically zero. The RIP values had a significant positive correlation with the total K content of all the reference clay minerals (r_s = 0.621*). This indicated that the retention ability for ¹³⁷Cs depended more on the content of illite, as impurity, rather than the type of bulk mineral. Hence, the contribution of illite to the magnitude of the RIP was elucidated by the combination of measurement of total K content and XRD analysis.     

Kinetics of nutrient release from different organic residues using a laboratory system

Organic residues play a vital role in maintaining soil fertility in arid and semi-arid regions. Knowledge of the nutrient release from organic residues will help in optimizing nutrient efficiency in agricultural crop production systems. This study was conducted to assess the continuous release of phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) from eight different organic residues (sheep manure, beet, waste material, rape, poultry manure, sunflower, potato and garlic) using successive extractions with distilled water. The residues were shaken for 1 h and equilibrated for longer intervals (1, 3.5, 18, 42, 72, 192, 768, 1248, 1608, 1968 and 2328 h) with successive extractions. Cumulative nutrient release curves by different organic residues versus time showed an initial rapid phase followed by a slow phase. The average percentage of nutrients released and the average release rate of nutrients found using a power model was different and were in the order K > P > Ca > Mg and Ca > Mg > P > K, respectively. According to MINTEQ software, the partitioning of total P between HPO₄ ^2? and H₂PO₄ ^? is sensitive to the type of organic residue. On average (pooled over all extractions), between 13% (rape) to 40% (poultry) and 27% (poultry manure) to 79% (beet) of total P in aqueous solutions present as HPO₄ ^2? and H₂PO₄ ^?, respectively. Among the various organic residues and in the first stage of release, sunflower residue, beet residue, poultry manure and garlic residue had the highest rate constant for Ca, Mg, P and K, respectively, indicating the high potential availability of these nutrients in the early stage of application to soils.     

Influence of Aluminum Hydroxide on Potassium Release from Two Colombian Soils

Abstract

The effect of sesquioxides on the mechanisms of chemical reactions that govern the transformation between exchangeable potassium (Kex) and non‐exchangeable K (Knex) was studied on acid tropical soils from Colombia: Caribia with predominantly 2∶1 clay minerals and High Terrace with predominantly 1∶1 clay minerals and sesquioxides. Illite and vermiculite are the main clay minerals in Caribia followed by kaolinite, gibbsite, and plagioclase, and kaolinite is the major clay mineral in High Terrace followed by hydroxyl‐Al interlayered vermiculite, quartz, and pyrophyllite. The soils have 1.8 and 0.5% of K₂O, respectively. They were used either untreated or prepared by adding AlCl₃ and NaOH, which produced aluminum hydroxide. The soils were percolated continuously with 10 mM NH₄OAc at pH 7.0 and 10 mM CaCl₂ at pH 5.8 for 120 h at 6 mL h^?1 to examine the release of Kex and Knex. In the untreated soils, NH₄ ⁺ and Ca²⁺ released the same amounts of Kex from Caribia, whereas NH₄ ⁺ released about twice as much Kex as Ca²⁺ from High Terrace. This study proposes that the small ionic size of NH₄ ⁺ (0.54 nm) enables it to enter more easily into the K sites at the broken edges of the kaolinite where Ca²⁺ (0.96 nm) cannot have access. As expected for a soil dominated by 2∶1 clay minerals, Ca²⁺ caused Knex to be released from Caribia with no release by NH₄ ⁺. No Knex was released by either ion from High Terrace. After treatment with aluminum hydroxide, K release from the exchangeable fraction was reduced in Caribia due to the blocking of the exchange sites but release of Knex was not affected. The treatment increased the amount of Kex released from the High Terrace soil and the release of Knex remained negligible although with Ca²⁺ the distinction between Kex and Knex was unclear. The increase in Kex was attributed to the initially acidic conditions produced by adding AlCl₃ which may have dissolved interlayered aluminum hydroxide from the vermiculite present, thus exposing trapped K as exchangeable K. The subsequent precipitation of aluminum hydroxide when NaOH was added did not interfere with the release of this K, and so was probably formed mostly on the surface of the dominant kaolinite. Measurement of availability of K by standard methods using NH₄ salts could result in overestimates in High Terrace and this may be a more general shortcoming of the methods in kaolinitic soils.     

四种常规方法提取伊利石有效钾的机制比较

采用化学分析、X射线衍射、中红外光声光谱以及原子力显微镜的方法,比较了0.2 mol L~(-1)四苯硼钠法、1 mol L~(-1)沸硝酸法、2 mol L~(-1)冷硝酸法和2 mol L~(-1)热盐酸法浸提伊利石中有效钾的机制。结果表明,四苯硼钠法浸提时,伊利石中钾素释放量达到全钾量的59.5%,且基本均通过层间交换反应予以释放,结构离子铁、铝和硅释放量极低;采用三种酸溶液浸提时,其钾素释放量仅占全钾量的1.53%~2.46%,通过层间交换反应释放的钾量占释放量的比例为88.4%~94.0%。四苯硼钠浸提时伊利石层间距扩大,产生次生过渡矿物,并形成富硅表层,但在伊利石表面无溶蚀特征;三种酸溶液浸提时伊利石结构无改变,但其结晶度降低,且表面有明显的溶蚀特征。因此,土壤矿物层间钾是作物可利用有效钾的主要来源,三种酸溶液浸提方法一方面低估了有效钾容量,另一方面提取了一部分不能为植物所利用的结构态钾,不适宜于用来评价伊利石及土壤有效钾库容量。     

Evaluation of available boron content using eight methods of extraction in different soils from Córdoba and sucre in Colombia

The aim was to evaluate eight methods of boron (B) extraction in different soils from Córdoba and Sucre, Colombia. 37 samples were collected at a depth of 0–20 cm and carried to Soil and Water Laboratory of University of Córdoba for its chemical characterization. The available boron was extracted with the following methods: modified hot water, calcium chloride (CaCl₂) 0.05, hydrochloric acid (HCl) 0.05, barium chloride (BaCl₂) 0.006, manitol 0.05 + CaCl₂ 0.01, Ca(H₂PO₄)₂H₂O 0.008 in mol L^?1, mehlich-1 and ammonium acetate (NH₄OAc) (1.0 mol L^?1, pH = 7.0). The major quantity of boron was extracted with mehlich-1, HCl 0.05 mol L^?1 and hot water, extracting 0.36, 0.29 and 0.26 mg kg^?1, respectively. The extracting solution that correlated with the hot water method was HCl 0.05 mol L^?1 (r = 0.81); followed by Ca(H₂PO₄)₂H₂O 0.008 mol L^?1 (r = 0.62) and mehlich-1 (r = 0.54). According to characteristic and heterogeneity of soils, we recommend HCl method to extract available boron.     

Potassium release from sand,silt and clay fractions in calcareous soils of southern Iran

The release of non-exchangeable potassium from 24 calcareous soils of divergent mineralogy, from southern Iran, was examined. Sand, silt and clay particles were fractionated after dispersion with an ultrasonic probe. Samples were extracted with 0.01 M CaCl₂ for 30 successive 2-h periods. The clay fraction released the largest amount of K in each soil. Cumulative K released ranged from 175 to 723, 35 to 128, and 71 to 146 mg kg^?1 contributing 20–90, 4–39 and 2–54% for clay, silt and sand fractions, respectively. The lower proportion of K released from sand and silt fractions can be explained by the presence of a high content of CaCO₃ and quartz in these fractions. The release kinetics for the non-exchangeable K data showed that parabolic diffusion and power function were the best fitting kinetic models. This indicated that slow diffusion of K from the mica interlayer positions is the main rate-controlling process. Cumulative K released and constant b values of parabolic diffusion model correlated significantly with the mica content of the clay fraction.     

Interactive effects of charcoal and earthworm activity increase bioavailable phosphorus in sub-boreal forest soils

The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of charcoal and earthworm presence in contrasting soil types of northern Japan using the biologically based phosphorus (BBP) extraction method, which employs a variety of plant P acquisition strategies. Using soils developed in serpentine and sedimentary parent materials, we tested the interactive effects of Eisenia japonica (Michaelsen) earthworms and 500 kg ha^?1 of dwarf bamboo charcoal (Sasa kurilensis (Rupr.) Makino et Shibata) in a microcosm incubation that lasted four weeks. Soils were extracted in parallel after the incubation with the BBP method using 0.01 M CaCl₂ (soluble P), 0.01 M citric acid (chelate-extractable P), 0.02 phosphatase enzyme units ml^?1 (enzyme-extractable organic P), and 1.0 M HCl (mineral occluded P). Dwarf bamboo charcoal alone contained up to 444 mg total BBP kg^?1 prior to application to soil microcosms. Treatment effects in soil microcosms were highest in sedimentary soil types and where charcoal was combined with earthworms (15.97 mg P kg^?1 ± SE 1.23 total inorganic BBP). Recalcitrant inorganic P (HCl extracted) in combination treatments yielded the highest single inorganic BBP measure (12.41 mg kg^?1 ± SE 1.11). Our findings suggest that charcoal, as a legacy of wildfire, and native earthworm activity may help stimulate cycling of recalcitrant inorganic BBP pools.