外力作用下竹材不同尺度的断裂行为及机制

【目的】聚焦于探究在顺纹劈裂和径向横纹压缩力作用下，竹材在宏观、组织和细胞等不同尺度的断裂行为，剖析外力作用下竹材断裂机制，为竹材新技术、新工艺、新产品开发提供理论依据。【方法】以毛竹为研究对象，对其施加顺纹劈裂和径向横纹压缩作用，利用场发射扫描电镜（FESEM）观察维管束和薄壁组织及导管、纤维和薄壁细胞的断裂形貌和裂纹扩展路径，结合纳米压痕仪测量纤维和薄壁细胞2类细胞壁的微观力学强度，探索竹材在顺纹劈裂和径向横纹压缩力作用下不同尺度的断裂破坏特性。【结果】竹材在顺纹劈裂力作用下，宏观上呈顺纹劈裂破坏，断裂形貌近乎为直线状；在组织层面，维管束中纤维鞘和薄壁组织中沿顺纹劈裂，维管束中导管的细胞壁呈撕裂破坏；在细胞层面，纤维和大部分薄壁细胞为胞间层破坏，有少数薄壁短细胞的细胞壁被撕裂。竹材在径向横纹压缩力作用下，宏观上呈压溃破坏，在顺纹方向形成系列不规则裂纹；在组织层面，维管束受到明显破坏，纤维鞘中形成不规则裂纹，导管的细胞壁被压溃，薄壁组织呈阶梯状分层破坏；在细胞层面，与顺纹劈裂力的破坏模式相似，纤维和大部分薄壁细胞为胞间层破坏，不同的是裂纹在部分薄壁短细胞交接处会发生转向，沿径向拓展，...     

基于SHPB试验的桦木压缩动力学特性

【目的】利用木材动态压缩加载试验研究热磨机研磨解离破碎阶段木材原料受动态压缩载荷的动力学特性，并研究应变率、加载方向对木材原料动力学特性的影响，旨在深化木材原料研磨解离机制的研究，为热磨法纤维分离设备及磨片的齿形结构优化设计提供理论指导。【方法】利用 Hopkinson 杆试验装置对含水率为12.65%、密度为0.50 g·cm －3的桦木试件进行应变率约为400，800，1200 s －1，加载方向为径向、弦向和轴向的动态压缩试验，获得桦木在不同应变率及方向上动态压缩加载的解离特征、动态应力－应变曲线及相应的力学特性。【结果】对比分析各组试验后试件的破坏形态发现：1)当应变率约为400 s －1时，径向、弦向和轴向加载的试件主要发生塑性变形；2)当应变率约为800 s －1时，径向加载试件被解离成几大块，并且有一些“火柴棍”状的小试件从大试件上剥离；弦向加载试件沿加载方向上产生更大的塑性变形，并且在试件上、下两端处沿加载方向产生贯穿性裂纹，试件被解离成三大块；轴向加载试件受载面边缘处的纤维大量产生压溃现象，在加载面上产生贯穿性裂纹且有片状小试件从大试件上剥离；3)当应变率约为1200 s －1时，径向加载试件被解离成大量“火柴棍”状的小试件，并且小试件的尺寸明显小于应变率为800 s －1时；弦向加载试件沿加载方向上产生的塑性变形与应变率为800 s －1时相当，但是试件上端处被解离成许多片状的小试件，并且沿加载方向试件上产生了数条贯穿整个试件的大裂纹；轴向加载试件被解离成大量短粗状的小试件，并且小试件上带有明显的褶皱。对比分析各组试验试件的应力－应变曲线发现：1)动态压缩加载条件下桦木的应力－应变曲线可以由屈服点应变分为弹性阶段和屈服后弱线性强化阶段2部分；2)桦木沿径向加载应变率约为400，800，1200 s －1时，其屈服强度和韧性模量分别为4.56，10.49，14.22 MPa 和2.88，8.32，20.70 kJ·cm －3，应变率从400 s －1增加到1200 s －1时，屈服强度和韧性模量分别增加了2.11和6.19倍；3)桦木沿弦向加载应变率约为400，800，1200 s －1时，其屈服强度和韧性模量分别为5.87，7.90，9.65 MPa 和2.53，7.41，12.92 kJ·cm －3，应变率从400 s －1增加到1200 s －1时，其屈服强度和韧性模量分别增加了0.64和4.10倍；4)桦木沿轴向加载应变率约为400，800，1200 s －1时，其屈服强度分别为22.90，71.41，96.37 MPa 和18.79，67.74，114.32 kJ·cm －3，应变率从400 s －1增加到1200 s －1时，其屈服强度和韧性模量分别增加了3.21和5.08倍。【结论】随着应变率的增加，桦木的解离程度加大，径向加载最易解离，轴向加载最难解离；桦木的动态压缩屈服强度、动态压缩韧性模量具有很强的应变率敏感性，是一种应变率敏感材料。     

木材高温干燥过程中的弹性应变

本文对美洲黑杨锯材高温干燥过程中的弹性应变进行了研究。结果表明：高温干燥使得木材表层产生较大的塑化变定,并对干燥后期木材内层的正常收缩造成障碍。心层的拉伸应力与木材内裂有关,当心层拉伸应力超过木材横纹拉伸极限强度时,木材产生内裂。因此,在用高温干燥工艺快速干燥杨木类软阔叶树材时,在干燥后期应注意由于干燥应力转向而引起的干燥缺陷。     

木材裂纹尖端应力场的有限元分析和开裂方向预测

以鱼鳞云杉木材三点弯曲试件为例,应用ABAQUS有限元软件分析裂纹体与木材顺纹向倾角分别为90°,60°,30°,0°时的应力场,并采用"切向比正应力准则"对裂纹的启始开裂方向进行预测.结果表明:1)以裂尖为中心作径向平面,4种裂纹体试件的最大Mises应力所在的径向线均沿着木材的顺纹理方向;2)在除去裂尖奇异点以外的一个较大区域中,垂直裂纹表面的拉应力σY和平行裂纹表面的拉应力σX的比值σY/σX几乎是一个常数,在1～5之间;3)无论初始裂纹与木材顺纹向的夹角如何,其裂尖处的切向比正应力(R)均在顺纹方向上最大,理论预测和试验结果均表明裂纹将折向顺纹方向启裂.最后讨论木细胞间的低界面强度对木材的增韧作用.     

水曲柳木材裂纹尖端应力强度因子研究( 英文)

该文研究了水曲柳 (FraxinusmandshuricaRupr .)木材发生Ⅰ型断裂时裂纹尖端的应力场应力强度因子的情况 .借助美国大型通用有限元分析软件NASTRAN计算出裂纹尖端附近的应力 ,并通过GRAFTOOL软件对数据进行后期处理 ,画出裂纹尖端附近的应力强度因子分布图     

木材损伤断裂过程的声发射特性与Felicity效应

以2种针叶材、2种阔叶材为试材,研究无缺陷试件和含横纹裂纹试件在弯曲破坏过程中材料内部微结构演化的声发射特性,并利用声发射特征参数对几种损伤类型进行辨识.结果表明:1)无缺陷试件在加载初期声发射事件发展较为缓慢,且出现的主要是一些低振幅的AE信号,而大量高振幅AE信号出现在峰值载荷附近及韧性断裂阶段;2)利用声发射监测含裂纹试件在三点弯曲载荷下的损伤并断裂全过程,可以明显地识别裂纹尖端启裂和扩展的不同阶段;3)声发射信号的特征与损伤模式有关,胞壁断裂对应的AE特征为高幅值、高能量及长持续时间,而胞壁界面损伤与层裂损伤和细胞屈服与压溃损伤对应的AE特征为低幅度、低能量及短持续时间;4)木试件在低载荷水平下呈现Kaiser效应,而在高载荷水平下呈现Felicity效应,应用Felicity比能够较好地反映木结构的损伤程度.     

竹材的层间断裂性质

研究毛竹材的张开型和剪切型层间断裂行为,并基于能量原理,采用双悬臂梁和端部切口弯曲梁试样测定毛竹材顺纹向的Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型层间断裂韧性GⅠC、GⅡC.结果表明:1)竹材的Ⅰ和Ⅱ型层间断裂韧性是材料固有的属性,分别表征毛竹材对张开型裂纹和剪切型裂纹在层间扩展时的阻力;2)Ⅰ型裂纹扩展区域沿轴向具有光滑纤维与平整基体的特征.表明竹材基本组织强度及竹纤维/基本组织体间的界面强度较弱;Ⅱ型裂纹扩展区域中基体出现锯齿形受剪切变形的特征,表明基本组织在断裂前产生较大的剪切变形,故后者较前者吸收更多的断裂能(GⅡC≈2.5GⅠC).从整个断口形貌来看,裂纹扩展是在基体间和纤维,基体的界面上进行的,均为自相似断裂且无纤维桥联现象.     

人工林杉木、马尾松木材的断裂特性

使用扫描电子显微镜观察杉木、马尾松横纹拉应力、顺纹拉应力及冲击载荷作用下的破坏表面，结果表明不同的加载方式、加载速率对木材的断裂过程有影响；木材的微观构造影响其断裂过程。     

木材断裂裂纹及应力场的分形研究

木材材料的各向异性夺致木材断裂裂纹具有强烈的非均质性，其在二维空间内的分布县有非线性特征。运用数盒子法对裂纹发育带在二维平面内的分布进行了分形特征研究，发现木材裂纹县有明显的分形规律，分形维数为1．2-1．5；通过比较不同时问段的裂纹发育情况，发现裂纹的分形维数随斡裂纹的扩展星增加的趋势。对木材断裂过程的应力场进行分形研霓的结果表明，裂纹应力场伞表现出分形的特征，并且分形维数在裂纹尖端处最小，在远离裂纹尖端处较大。     

木材薄板横纹压缩强化的微观结构变化

以锯切大青杨、旋切白桦、刨切紫椴3种木材薄板为研究对象,用常温水浸泡至饱水状态后不经热软化预处理进行横纹压缩强化,通过扫描电镜观察分析横纹压缩强化前后3种木材的未压缩材和压缩材横、纵切面上的微观结构变化,从微观层面探讨此方法强化3种木材薄板的可行性和有待改进、完善之处.结果表明:3种木材的压缩材横切面上整体变形较均匀,横、纵切面上均未发现压缩裂纹或破坏,纵切面上导管壁均有因压缩产生顺纤维方向的横向挤压折皱条纹;横切面上,大青杨、紫椴压缩材管孔沿压缩方向变形最大,白桦压缩材管孔沿其长轴方向变形最大,并使两侧沿压缩方向、径向排列的木射线细胞和木纤维细胞发生侧向扭曲变形.     

针叶材在超细粉碎过程中细胞壁断裂的理论计算

将针叶材的超微结构破坏分为细胞壁间分离和细胞壁断裂两种形式。在制备其超细木粉过程中,涉及到针叶材细胞的破壁力计算时,提出以细胞壁中存在大量的原生细观缺陷作为已存在的裂纹,将单一细胞壁看作是带有裂纹体受拉应力的平板,利用弹塑性断裂力学中J积分与积分路径无关这一常数的性质,避开裂纹尖端的弹塑性区域进行理论计算,应用J积分与应力强度因子在平面应力下的关系,计算出针叶材细胞壁断裂韧性的大小,并将不同针叶树种的木材细胞断裂韧性数值与其相应的细胞壁抗拉强度实验结果相比较,得出以此理论计算木材细胞断裂韧性值较为合理,表明利用J积分计算木材细胞壁断裂韧性这一方法是可行的。     

Variability of fracture toughness by the crack tip position in an annual ring of coniferous wood

The effects of the location of the crack tip in an annual ring and the direction of crack propagation on the fracture toughness of the TR crack propagation system of coniferous wood (T, direction normal to the notch plane; R, propagation direction) were analyzed by the finite element method in regard of the changes in elastic modulus and strength within an annual ring. The critical point of the fracture was defined as the state where the stress of a square element (0.125 × 0.125 mm) in contact with the crack tip equals the tensile strength. The distribution of specific gravity was measured by soft X-ray densitometry. The elastic moduli in the T and R directions were estimated by the sound velocity. The tensile strengths in the T and R directions were measured by the tensile test using small specimens of l mm span length. Regarding the variability of fracture toughness (K _IC), the experimental and calculated results had the same tendency. Therefore, it was concluded that the variability ofK _IC is caused by the (1) heterogeneity of the elastic modulus and strength within an annual ring; and (2) changes in the degree of stress concentration at the crack tips, according to the direction of crack propagation.Part of this work was presented at the 40th annual meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Tsukuba, April 1990 and at the 6th International Conference on Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Kyoto, July 1991     

线弹性断裂力学原理在木材中应用的特殊性与木材顺纹理断裂

阐述了线弹性断裂力学 (LEFM)的原理以及在木材中应用的特殊性 ,并以杉木和马尾松为研究对象 ,采用不同试样和方法测定了木材的顺纹断裂韧性KTLIC 。研究表明 ,建立在各向同性体之上的LEFM原理对木材裂纹顺纹扩张是适用的 ,其顺纹断裂韧性是木材的固有属性     

木材损伤断裂与木材细观损伤基本构元

木材承载时细观结构上的损伤会在木材中扩展,并且损伤和缺陷在载荷下的演化行为决定着木材的宏观力学行为.木材的细观损伤基元可以归纳为4类:1)胞、壁层间界面损伤;2)细胞壁屈曲与局部塌溃损伤带;3)微孔洞损伤与汇合;4)微裂隙损伤(区).追踪分析木材从变形、损伤到断裂破坏的全过程,探明微结构演化与宏观行为关系,有助于揭示木材破坏的机制,并从中获得新的木材构造与其强韧功能相互关系的认识,对研发能够克服木材缺点、具有特殊强韧性能的新型木基复合材料具有重要指导意义.     

Influence of span/depth ratio on the measurement of mode II fracture toughness of wood by end-notched flexure test

The influence of the span/depth ratio when measuring the mode II fracture toughness of wood by endnotched flexure (ENF) tests was examined. Western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla Sarg.) was used for the specimens. The ENF tests were conducted by varying the span/depth ratios; and the fracture toughness at the beginning of crack propagation G_IIc was calculated by two equations that require the load-deflection compliance or Young's modulus. Additionally, the influence of the span/ depth ratio on the load-deflection compliance was analyzed by Timoshenko's bending theory in which additional deflection caused by the shearing force is taken into account. The following results were obtained: (1) When the span/depth ratio was small, the fracture toughness calculated with the data of load-deflection compliance was large. In contrast, the fracture toughness calculated with the equation containing Young's modulus tended to be constant. (2) In the small span/depth ratio range, the load-deflection compliance was estimated to be larger than that predicted by Timoshenko's bending theory. (3) To obtain the proper fracture toughness of wood with a single load-deflection relation, the span/depth ratio should be larger than that determined in several standards for the simple bending test method of wood, 12:16.     

The effect of elevated temperature exposure on the fracture toughness of solid wood and structural wood composites

Fracture toughness of wood and wood composites has traditionally been characterized by a stress intensity factor, an initiation strain energy release rate (G _init) or a total energy to fracture (G _f). These parameters provide incomplete fracture characterization for these materials because the toughness changes as the crack propagates. Thus, for materials such as wood, oriented strand board (OSB), plywood and laminated veneer lumber (LVL), it is essential to characterize the fracture properties during crack propagation by measuring a full crack resistant or R curve. This study used energy methods during crack propagation to measure full R curves and then compared the fracture properties of wood and various wood-based composites such as, OSB, LVL and plywood. The effect of exposure to elevated temperature on fracture properties of these materials was also studied. The steady-state energy release rate (G _SS) of wood was lower than that of wood composites such as LVL, plywood and OSB. The resin in wood composites provides them with a higher fracture toughness compared to solid lumber. Depending upon the internal structure of the material, the mode of failure also varied. With exposure to elevated temperatures, G _SS for all materials decreased while the failure mode remained the same. The scatter associated with conventional bond strength tests, such as internal bond and bond classification tests, renders any statistical comparison using those tests difficult. In contrast, fracture tests with R curve analysis may provide an improved tool for characterization of bond quality in wood composites.     

Fracture in Norway spruce wood treated with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Physisporinus vitreus</Emphasis>

Changes in the fracture behaviour of Norway spruce tonewood after fungal treatment were studied. Specimens were incubated for 6, 9 and 12 months with Physisporinus (P.) vitreus. Fracture tests were performed in a compact-tension fracture experiment set-up, and the results were compared with the morphological analysis of the degraded wood structure and transverse sections of the crack tip viewed under light and fluorescence microscopy. It was evident that both the failure load and critical stress intensity factors were reduced in wood after prolonged incubation periods. Weight losses were significantly higher in sapwood than in heartwood. With prolonged incubation periods, the frequency of unstable fracture and brittle behaviour of the wood increased. In untreated wood, cracks were initiated in the earlywood. The process involved both delamination of the cells within the middle lamellae and rupture of the cell walls, inducing a zigzag crack tip pattern. In fungally treated wood, cracks often commenced from the intersection between late- and earlywood, resulting in a straight tangential crack line. Micrographic images showed that P. vitreus was more active in the secondary walls of latewood tracheids. In this region of the wood, the cell walls were strongly degraded after 9–12 months of incubation, resulting in a reduction in tensile strength, even though the wood did not show strong features of decay at the macroscopic level.     

Elastic layer model for application to crack propagation problems in timber engineering

A fracture mechanics model for analysis of crack initiation and propagation in wood is defined and applied. The model has the advantage of being simple, yet it enables reasonably general and accurate analysis commonly associated with more complex models. The present applied calculations are made by means of the finite element method and relate to progressive cleavage fracture along grain. The calculations concern a tapered double cantilever beam specimen and an end-notched beam. Comparisons are made of experimental test results. The fracture properties of the wood are modelled by means of a very thin linear elastic layer located along the crack propagation path. The properties of the layer are such that the strength and fracture energy of the wood are represented correctly. This makes a single linear elastic calculation sufficient for strength prediction. Both crack development and pre-existing cracks can be analyzed. Both material strength and fracture energy and stiffness are taken into account, their relative influence on structural strength being different for different elements. The fracture layer is in the finite element context represented by joint elements. Propagation of a crack can be analyzed either by a series of elastic calculations corresponding to different crack lengths or by use of a finite element code for non-linear analysis. The computational results include sensitivity analysis with respect to the influence of the various material parameters on structural strength.     

柔度法标定木材断裂韧性的研究

本文应用柔度法测量了杉木的断裂韧性，研究表明：（１）柔度法是一种有效可行的实验标定方法，选用指数函数Ｃ=aexp(βa/w)能够很好地表达柔度与裂纹长度间的关系，（２）本文实验测定的杉木断裂韧性ＫIC=4.825MPa.mm^1/2.     

Resistance curve for the mode II fracture toughness of wood obtained by the end-notched flexure test under the constant loading point displacement condition

 The measurement method of mode II fracture toughness-crack propagation length relation (i.e., the resistance curve, or R-curve) was examined by end-notched flexure tests on sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis Carr.). The tests were conducted by varying the span/depth ratios under the constant loading point displacement condition. The fracture toughness was measured from the load-crack shear displacement (CSD) and load-longitudinal strain relations. The crack length was determined by a combination of load-CSD and load-strain compliances and Williams's end correction theory, as well as the observation of crack propagation. When the specimen had an appropriate span/depth ratio, the fracture toughness and crack propagation length were measured from the load-CSD compliance and combined load-CSD and load-strain compliances, respectively, and the R-curve could be determined properly under the constant loading point displacement condition. Received: March 15, 2002 / Accepted: July 25, 2002