Butt rot ofChamaecyparis obtusa (Sieb. et Zucc.) Endlicher trees caused byPerenniporia subacida in Shikoku district, Japan: Pathogen, distribution of damaged trees in the stand, and soil investigation

The rot ofChamaecyparis obtusa (hinoki) trees was studied in the northern part of Kagawa Prefecture, Japan. Among 158 hinoki examined, butt rot was found in 28.6, 58.3, and 100% of trees in the 29, 30, and 34-year-old stands, respectively. All trees with butt rot, and 11 trees without it had rotted roots. Thirteen hinoki were peeled byCervus nippon (sika deer) and all of them were infected with butt rot. The maximum height of rot in deer-damaged trees was 2.6 m from the ground level, but was 1.9 m in undamaged trees. About eighty-two percent of rotted trees showed rotted areas of less than 40 cm² on the cross section of stems at the ground level. White mycelia and black flecks sometimes appeared in the rotted wood. Basidiocarps of polyporaceous fungus were often found on felled logs and rotted stumps of hinoki and identified asPerenniporia subacida. Basidiomycetous fungus was isolated frequently from rotted wood of roots and stems, and determined to beP. subacida by comparative study on cultural characteristics. An inoculation experiment and wood-decay test proved that the fungus was the cause of the rot of hinoki. Few absorbing roots of living trees were found in the clayey subsurface soil of the high dry bulk density and the less soil aeration. Some absorbing roots had root rot and the rot spread from the base of the absorbing root to the central part of the woody root. This is the first report on the rot of hinoki caused byP. subacida in Japan.     

Liquid culture and transformation of hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa Sieb. et Zucc.)

Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) is one of the most important timber resource forest trees in Japan. Because seed production from a seed orchard of hinoki cypress is not constant every year, micropropagation from a limited amount of material is useful. Up to now, the conventional tissue culture method using solid medium has been used. Here a new method using liquid culture in tubes rotated vertically is described. Shoot primordium of hinoki cypress was inoculated in Campbell and Durzan’s (CD) liquid medium containing different cytokinins (6-benzylaminopurine (BAP), Zeatin, thidiazurone (TDZ)), and the container tubes were rotated vertically around the axis at 2 times / min. Culture room temperature was 25°C and light condition was 16 h photoperiod per day of fluorescent lamps. Zeatin at 1μM concentration was the best for maintaining the shoot primordium production and TDZ induced callus on the surface of the shoot primordia. After shoot primordium multiplication in the liquid culture, they were transplanted to agar medium for shoot elongation. A high concentration of agar (up to 16 g/L) or AVF (anti vitrification factor from Dr. Nairn, 1995) was effective to prevent vitrification of the shoots. Transformation of shoot primordium was done using particle bombardment with vectors containingβ-glucuronidase (GUS) gene or herbicide resistance gene (bar). Positive result for transient transformation was observed with the histo-chemical study for transformation with GUS. Integration of a useful herbicidebar gene into the shoot primordium culture system was also tried and stably transformed plants were obtained. This is the first report of stable transformation of Japanese conifer using practically useful gene. The generous supply of AVF-B from Dr. B.J. Nairn, Tasman Forestry, NZ is also appreciated.     

Individual variation in low boiling point monoterpenes emitted from hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) needles

Variations in the compositions of low-boilingpoint (LBP) monoterpenes in needle samples of 50 hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) trees were investigated using the headspace technique. Considerable compositional variations were revealed, especially in sabinene composition. The sabinene composition varied from 4.9% to 78.0% of the total LBP monoterpenes.-Pinene, myrcene, and limonene also showed considerable variations (9.0%–32.7%, 5.5%–22.6%, 3.6%–29.0% respectively). Analysis of the monoterpene composition allowed definition of four chemotypes based on the contingency table test. No correlation was observed between tree size and LBP monoterpene composition, indicating that the compositional variation in LBP monoterpene exists genetically in this population of hinoki.Part of this paper was presented at the 11th annual meeting of the Chugoku Shikoku branch of the Japan Wood Research Society, Matsue, September 1999     

Tree-to-tree and clone-to-clone variations of monoterpenes emitted from needles of hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa)

Variations in the composition of low boiling point (LBP) monoterpenes emitted from needle samples of 150 hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtuse) trees (30 strains, each with five clones) native to Shimane Prefecture, Japan, were investigated using a headspace technique. The assays revealed considerable proportional variations especially in the amount of sabinene, which ranged from 24% to 78% of the total LBP monoterpenes. The proportions of α-pinene, myrcene, and limonene negatively correlated with that of sabinene overall. In particular, the proportion of limonene showed clear negative correlation with that of sabinene (r = −0.98). Differences in the proportion of sabinene among five clones in each strain were less than 15% in 22 out of 30 strains, indicating that monoterpene composition is constitutively steady in most strains. In a few strains, however, considerable variation in the composition was observed among clones.     

Pollen dispersal in a hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) seed orchard detected using a chloroplast DNA marker

Pollen dispersal was estimated in two test plots in a hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) seed orchard using a chloroplast DNA marker, the spacer region between thetrnD andtrnY genes, and SSCP (single strand conformation polymorphism). In Plot 1, 2,020 seeds from 40 trees within 30 m of the marker tree were analyzed using the PCR-SSCP method. In Plot 2, 1,850 seeds from 37 trees were analyzed in the same manner. The results revealed that the maximum pollen dispersal distance in the two plots exceeded 25 m. Pollen dispersal appeared to be inversely proportional to the distance from the marker tree. The effective pollen dispersal was suggested to be less than about 20 m in a mature hinoki seed orchard. Adjacent trees had an excessive influence when the pollen density was increased by artificial flower stimulation. Therefore, it was suggested that seed production better resembles ideal random mating when carried out as naturally as possible. In conclusion, the SSCP chloroplast DNA marker was a useful tool for amassing basic information on pollen management in seed orchards of coniferous species.     

Genetic variation in fruitfulness in a hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl.) seed orchard and its impact on the maintenance of genetic diversity in seedlots

Genetic variation in seed/cone production among clones was studied in a hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl.) seed orchard containing 25 plus-trees by analyzing the number of cones, the yield of cones and seeds of individual ramets for 5 successive years (1982 to 1986). There was significant variation among clones each year and parental contribution in the seed orchard. Specifically, in the years 1982, 1983, 1984, 1985, and 1986, 20% of the clones produced 37.2, 60.6, 36.0, 44.3, and 44.8% of the total cones, respectively. The size of the crop greatly influenced the parental balance in the resulting seed/cone crops. The product moment correlation coefficients and Spearman’s coefficients of rank correlation were small and insignificant between consecutive years, but large and highly significant between alternate years, suggesting the presence of carry-over effects in seed/cone production. The broad-sense heritability on a clone mean basis was 0.74 ± 0.15 for the number of cones, 0.72 ± 0.14 for the yield of cones, and 0.68 ± 0.13 for the yield of seeds. The corresponding heritabilities from analyses combined over all years were 0.24, 0.558, and 0.724, respectively. These results indicate that seed/cone production in hinoki is under strong genetic control. Several managerial measures are discussed that maintain the genetic diversity in seedlots used for reforestation, by reducing the variation in seed/cone production among clones and producing seed crops with equal contributions from all parents.     

The composition of volatiles from tatami mats containing hinoki (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaecyparis obtusa</Emphasis>) wood-wool and its decline over the long term

Volatiles inside tatami mats containing hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) wood-wool as padding were analyzed. Volatiles were collected with solid-phase microextraction (SPME) fibers in a small chamber prepared in tatami mats and assayed by gas chromatography. Most of the detected compounds are typically found in hinoki extractives. Monoterpenes rapidly decreased at the beginning of the experiment, while the dispersion of sesquiterpenes that contain hydroxyl groups was observed to last more than 1 year. These sesquiterpenes, T-cadinols, and α-cadinols may play a role in the suppression of house dust mites. Part of this report was presented at the 55th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society in Kyoto, March 2005     

The penetration rate of laser pulses transmitted from a small-footprint airborne LiDAR: a case study in closed canopy, middle-aged pure sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) and hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa Sieb. et Zucc.) stands in Japan

Penetration rates of laser pulses transmitted from a small-footprint airborne light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system in closed-canopy, middle-aged (40–50 years old) hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa Sieb. et Zucc.) and sugi (Cryptomeria japonica D. Don) plantations that had similar levels of canopy openness were studied. The number of transmitted pulses was 107 427 points/ha for the hinoki cypress stand and 122 883 points/ha for the sugi stand. The penetration rates of the first (P_f) and second pulses (P_s) that reached the ground were 0.1% and 1.0% in the hinoki cypress stand, and 2.6% and 5.5% in the sugi stand, respectively. Penetration rates for the total number of pulses (P_f+s) that reached the ground within each stand were 1.1% and 8.1%, respectively, and values for P_f+s, P_f, and P_s for sugi and hinoki cypress stands were significantly different (P < 0.001). The results of this study indicated that the generation of accurate digital terrain models in dense hinoki cypress stands with complex topographies using only the data from laser pulses with poor laser penetration rates is likely to be difficult.     

From the Editor

Abstract

In 2001 large areas of Pinus sylvestris L. stands in Sweden were attacked by Gremmeniella abietina (Lagerb.) Morelet. The resultant damage was assessed in five genetic field trials and one clonal seed orchard, with the aims of quantifying the genetic variation in tree responses to G. abietina, studying the genetic relationship between G. abietina susceptibility and growth traits, and examining the implications of the results for P. sylvestris breeding. A comparison of G. abietina damage between plus-tree progenies and seed stand check-lots in each of four tree classes (dominant, co-dominant, subordinated and suppressed) found no significant differences except in the suppressed tree class, where plus-tree progenies were damaged less severely than trees from the seed stands. Narrow- and broad-sense heritability for G. abietina damage traits were in the range 0.22–0.42. Genetic correlations between G. abietina damage and growth traits were weak and not significantly different from zero. The results imply that selection for growth capacity in P. sylvestris breeding programmes using plus-tree selection or field progeny tests does not increase susceptibility to G. abietina. In addition, there is scope for selecting genotypes with increased resistance if this is required in the future.     

Abietane-type and labdane-type diterpenoids from the cones of Chamaecyparis obtusa

A novel compound, 8(17),12E,14-labdatrien-19-al (trans-communal), was isolated from ethyl acetate extract of young cones of hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa Endl.). The chemical structure of the compound was determined mainly with various nuclear magnetic resonance spectral techniques. Its stereochemistry was determined by derivation to a known compound,trans-communol. In addition to this compound, four known compounds — ferruginol, chamaecydin, 12-hydroxy-6,7-seco-abieta-8,l 1,13-triene-6,7-dial, and frans-communic acid — were isolated. All isolated compounds were subjected to an antifeedant bioassay against the pest insectSpodoptera litura. Results of the bioassay showed that chamaecydin and 12-hydroxy-6,7-seco-abieta-8,11,13-triene-6,7-dial had antifeedant activity.Part of this report was presented at 45th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Tokyo, April 1995     

Responses of antioxidant enzymes in the needles of hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) seedlings to nutrient solutions containing various calcium/aluminum ratios

An attempt was made to examine the possible connection between the various ratios of calcium/aluminum (Ca/Al) in the nutrient solution of plant cultures and the active oxygen scavenging system of hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) seedlings. The hinoki cypress seedlings were transferred to nutrient solutions containing 5 mM AlCl₃ together with various concentrations of Ca(NO₃)₂ in pots containing glass beads and Teflon tips. The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and glutathione reductase (GR) in the needles were estimated at several stages during the 7-day treatment. The samples treated with the lower Ca/Al solutions show the highest SOD activities. The activities of APX and GR, both of them involved in the ascorbate-glutathione cycle, showed the same tendency with decrease to higher Ca/Al ratio. These results indicate that rhizospheric Ca might compete with Al and ameliorate Al toxicity on and in the roots, the Al stress is not transformed to the needles after a few days, and the ascorbate-glutathione cycle in the hinoki cypress needles might fluctuate and be suppressed by the rhizospheric Al stress during the 7 days. This work was supported in part by funding from the Japan Science & Technology Corporation, the CREST program 1996–2001, and the Center for Forest Decline Studies.     

Seasonal change in the temperature coefficientQ 10 for respiration of field-grown hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) trees

The effect of temperature upon nighttime respiration was examined on four different sized sample trees in a 17-year-old hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa (Sieb. et Zucc.) Endl.) stand over two years. Seasonal changes inQ ₁₀ values and their responses to mean temperature were investigated. On the basis of the monthly relationships between nighttime respiration (r) and temperature inside a chamber (θ),r=r ₀exp (kθ), theQ ₁₀ value (=exp(10k)) was calculated. TheQ ₁₀ values were high (Q ₁₀≥3.0) in winter when mean air temperature was low, and gradually decreased toward summer (Q ₁₀≤1.5) through spring with increasing temperature. TheQ ₁₀ values were negatively correlated with mean air temperature. The response ofQ ₁₀ values to mean air temperature was described by a single equation, regardless of tree size. This result, which might be characteristic of this species, shows that respiration ofC. obtusa trees is promoted by slight increases of air temperature in winter season. On the other hand, temperature sensitivity of total respiration reduced during growing season when ambient temperature was high. These chaning temperature sensitivity according to seasons may depend on the seasonal change of the ratio of growth respiration to total respiration. It is concluded that changes in temperature due to changing seasons not only change respiration rate, but also change the response of respiration rate to temperature by shiftingQ ₁₀ values.     

Water status of hinoki cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa, attacked by secondary woodboring insects after typhoon strike

We estimated the water status of six 31-year-old hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) trees that were struck by a large typhoon. Measurements were made of the trunk water-conduction area of xylem, leaf water potentials, and diurnal changes in trunk diameters. The secondary woodboring insects, Callidiellum rufipenne and Ovalisia vivata, on the trees were captured by the sticky-trap banding method. In trees on which these wood borers were captured, water conduction areas were reduced, leaf water potentials were lower, and trunk diameter changes (R) fluctuated during the day, suggesting that the trees had been damaged by the typhoon and were under water stress. The secondary woodboring insects attacked the water-stressed trees.     

Effect of Ca on Al-induced activation of antioxidant enzymes in the needles of hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa)

The effect of CA(NO₃)₂ on the active oxygen scavenging system in hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) seedlings cultured in a nutrient solution containing aluminum was examined. The hinoki cypress seedlings were transferred to nutrient solutions containing 5 mM AlCl₃ together with various concentrations of Ca(NO₃)₂ in pots containing glass beads and Teflon tips. The growth in height and dry matter allocation to each organ was little influenced over a period of 12 weeks by either Al or the concentration of Ca(NO₃)₂. The activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD) in the needles was stimulated by Al, and the effect of Al was lowered significantly by simultaneous application of 25 mM Ca(NO₃)₂. At week 1, the activity of catalase (CAT) in the needles was increased by Al, but the effect was no longer observed at week 12. The Al concentration in the roots was increased by treatment with Al, whereas the Al concentration in needles was not. These results indicate that rhizospheric Al stress stimulates antioxidative enzyme activities in hinoki cypress needles and the activation of the enzymes is suppressed by addition of Ca. The transmission of Al stress to the needles, which induced a change in the enzyme activity, is not caused by the transfer of the Al ion itself from roots to needles. This work was supported in part by funding from the Japan Science and Technology Corporation, the CREST program 1996–2001, and the Center for Forest Decline Studies.     

Protective effect of floor cover against soil erosion on steep slopes forested with <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chamaecyparis obtusa</Emphasis> (hinoki) and other species

 We evaluated the protective effects of floor cover against soil erosion in three types of forest located on steep slopes under a humid climate: 22- and 34-year-old Chamaecyparis obtusa (hinoki), 34-year-old Cryptomeria japonica (sugi), and 62-year-old Pinus densiflora (red pine) stands. We measured sediment transport rates (sediment mass passing through one meter of contour width per millimeter of rainfall), using sediment traps, before and after removing floor cover. Raindrop splash erosion was dominant in the experimental stands. Floor cover percentage (FCP) during the preremoval stage varied from 50% to 100% among the four stands, and sediment transport rates ranged from 0.0079 to 1.7 g m⁻¹ mm⁻¹. The rates increased to 1.5–5.6 g m⁻¹ mm⁻¹ immediately after removing floor cover, and remained high throughout the experiment. The presence of physical cover near the ground has a crucial effect on sediment transport on forested slopes. The protective effect ratio (the ratio of the sediment transport rate in a control plot to that in the removal plot) in a young hinoki stand, in which the FCP decreased markedly, was 0.3 at most, which is close to the rate for bare ground. The protective effect ratio in the red pine stand was ≤0.003. We concluded that the protective effect of floor cover in undisturbed forests in Japan differs by over two orders of magnitude, based on comparisons with previous studies. Received: March 11, 2002 / Accepted: August 16, 2002 Present address: Department of Forest Site Environment, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan Tel. +81-298-73-3211; Fax +81-298-74-3720 e-mail: miura@affrc.go.jp Present address: Department of Forest Site Environment, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, Ibaraki 305-8687 Japan Tel. +81-298-73-3211; Fax +81-298-74-3720 e-mail: miura@affrc.go.jp Acknowledgments This study was supported by the Research Council of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, of Japan. We thank H. Ujihara, S. Ujihara, and M. Ogasawara in Otoyo, Kochi, who provided the experimental stands used in this study. We also thank K. Hirai, S. Kuramoto, E. Kodani, and the rest of the staff at the Shikoku Research Center, Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, for their help in conducting the experiments. Correspondence to:S. Miura     

Variability of some wood properties of eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides Bartr.) clones

The objective of this article is to investigate the variability in chemical composition, fiber length, and basic wood density (specific gravity) amongst clones. Wood samples were taken from an experimental plantation in a dense 2.5 × 2.5 m wood, i.e., 1600 trees/ha. The plantation consisted of 127 clones which were selected in the nursery from 11 eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides Bartr., section Aigeiros) half-sib progenies. The physical, structural, and chemical characteristics of 40 poplar clones aged four years were investigated in three model trees from each clone. There are significant differences between the contents of the individual components of the wood chemical composition. The values of the heritability factor are high and they are similar for lignin (0.936), holocellulose (0.937) and for the extractives content (0.999). The mean value of the basic wood density is 380 kg/m³ (coefficient of heritability is 0.938), and the mean value of the fiber length is 863 m (coefficient of heritability 0.611).     

思茅松自由授粉家系遗传参数与早期选择分析

[目的]通过对思茅松自由授粉子代测试林的生长与形质性状遗传参数的估计,进行优良家系选择,为建立思茅松高世代种子园及培育优良无性系苗木提供种质资源。[方法]采用随机区组试验设计,在214个思茅松自由授粉家系子代测试林中选择胸径、地径、树高、枝下高、冠幅、通直度、树干圆满度、树冠圆满度、材积及地上生物量等生长与形质性状,利用线性混合模型进行遗传参数的估计,进行优良家系筛选。[结果]思茅松自由授粉子代测试林生长与形质性状的遗传参数在家系间差异极显著。各性状的家系遗传力较高,其中,地径的家系遗传力最大(1.105)。材积的预期遗传增益高于地上生物量,利用家系/家系内选择方法进行优良家系的筛选,材积的预期遗传增益为60.75%,入选家系为60个;地上生物量的预期遗传增益为44.22%,入选家系为66个。轮盘数、通直度和树干圆满度对材积和地上生物量都有显著影响。[结论]在早期选择中,形质性状的遗传变异对思茅松自由授粉优良家系的选择有重要参考作用,4年生思茅松自由授粉家系子代测试林中各性状存在着丰富的遗传变异,在早期选择中可以筛选出适合不同培育目标的优良家系,最大限度挖掘其遗传潜力。     

Pharmacological effects of Ganoderma lucidum collected from ume (Japanese apricot) trees

We performed functional evaluation of the fruiting bodies of Ganoderma lucidum growing on ume trees (Japanese apricot, Prunus mume), and determined the suitability of pruned ume branches as a basic component of culture medium for this mushroom. We observed that all tested functional activities of the fruiting bodies of G. lucidum collected from ume trees were higher than those collected from other broadleaf trees or cultured artificially; the functional tests were angiotensin I-converting enzyme inhibitory activity, a platelet aggregation inhibition test, and an interleukin-8 (IL-8) gene expression inhibition test. When extracts from fruiting bodies of G. lucidum were orally administered to spontaneous hypertensive rats, hypotensive effects were found. Freeze drying was the most suitable procedure for preservation of the extracts, and the activities of 30% ethanol extracts and 30% methanol extracts were higher than those of hot-water extracts. The highest functional activities for extracts from G. lucidum mycelia cultured on sawdust media were for sawdusts based on ume wood. Part of this study was presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Akita, Japan, August 2006     

Comparison of terpenes in extracts from the resin and the bark of the resinous stem canker of Chamaecyparis obtusa and Thujopsis dolabrata var. hondae

A monoterpene and 15 diterpenes were isolated from the ethyl acetate extracts of the bark-glued resin from the resinous stem canker ofThujopsis dolabrata var.hondae Makino. A monoterpene (nezukone20) and 4 diterpenes (acetyl torulosol5, acetyl isocupressic acid8, acetyl abietinol11, and 7-methoxytotarol18) were characteristic constituents of the ethyl acetate extracts but were absent in then-hexane extracts from the resinous stem canker ofT. dolabrata var.hondae. These terpenes were first isolated fromT. dolabrata var.hondae andT. dolabrata. The available literature suggests that diterpene18 is a new compound. The resinous stem canker ofChamaecyparis obtusa Endlicher contained larger amounts of manool1,trans-communic acid6, and ferruginol12 and smaller amounts of isocupressic acid7 and abietinol10 than the resinous stem canker ofT. dolabrata var.hondae. The concentration of18 was less than 2% in the extracts, and the resinous stem canker ofC. obtusa lacked this compound. The resinous stem cankers ofC. obtusa andT. dolabrata var.hondae provided extracts 15.6 and 4.96 times, respectively, heavier than the healthy ones. Large differences in the ratios and compositions of terpenes were also observed between the resinous stem canker and the healthy trees. Terpenes isolated from the extracts contained many kinds of diterpene, especially the labdane-type diterpenes, in these diseased trees. These results suggest that the presence of labdane-type diterpenes is closely associated with the resinous stem canker or the causal fungi of this disease.Part of this report was presented at the 50th annual meeting of the Japan Wood Research Society, Kyoto, April 2000     

桉属树种与种源、家系比较试验

以９个桉属树种，其中８个种泊来自原产地，７个家系和７个杂种后代来自国内次生资源进行混合比较，５年生评价结果表明：树种、种源、家系呈极显著差异；尾叶桉及其两个种源、尾巨桉杂交种细叶桉的１３５４４种源适合本试验区戒严和格短轮伐期经营，可获得适应性和生长指标平均值超过平均水平３５％的选择效应。其中最优为１４５３４号尾叶桉种源，５年生单株材积０．０５０．６１ｍ＾３／株（８９．０３ｍ＾３／ｈｍ＾２）。种子采