N- to C-terminal SNARE complex assembly promotes rapid membrane fusion

Assembly of the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptors (SNAREs) syntaxin 1, SNAP-25, and synaptobrevin 2 is thought to be the driving force for the exocytosis of synaptic vesicles. However, whereas exocytosis is triggered at a millisecond time scale, the SNARE-mediated fusion of liposomes requires hours for completion, which challenges the idea of a key role for SNAREs in the final steps of exocytosis. We found that liposome fusion was dramatically accelerated when a stabilized syntaxin/SNAP-25 acceptor complex was used. Thus, SNAREs do have the capacity to execute fusion at a speed required for neuronal secretion, demonstrating that the maintenance of acceptor complexes is a critical step in biological fusion reactions.     

Transport studies in bacterial membrane vesicles

The use of bacterial membrane vesicles as an experimental system for the study of active transport has been discussed. Vesicles are prepared from osmotically sensitized bacteria, and consist of osmotically intact, membranebound sacs without internal structure. They retain litle or no cytoplasm. Under appropriate conditions, these vesicles catalyze the transport of a variety of solutes at rates which are comparable, in many cases, to those of intact cells. Two general types of transport systems have been elucidated in the vesicle system: (i) group translocation systems which catalyze vectorial covalent reactions; and (ii) respirationlinked transport systems that catalyze the active transport of a whole range of metabolites against an electrochemical or osmotic gradient. In E. coli membrane vesicles, the respiration-linked transport systems are coupled primarily to the oxidation of (D)-lactate to pyruvate, catalyzed by a flavin-linked, membrane-bound (D)-lactate dehydrogenase which has been purified to homogeneity. Electrons derived from (D)-lactate or certain artificial electron donors are transferred to oxygen by means of a membrane-bound respiratory chain, and respiration is coupled to active transport within a segment of the respiratory chain between the primary dehydrogenase and cytochrome. b(l). The great majority of the individual membrane vesicles in the population catalyze active transport, and the generation or hydtolysis of ATP is not involved. Under anaerobic conditions, fumarate or nitrate can be utilized in place of oxygen as terminal electron acceptors. With the exception that (D)-lactate is not always the most effective electron donor for active transport, vesicles prepared from a number of other organisms catalyze transport in a similar manner. Fluorescent dansylgalactosides are useful molecular probes of active transport in the vesicle system. These compounds are competitive inhibitors of beta-galactoside transport, but are not transported themselves. Fluorescence studies indicate that the lac carrier protein constitutes approximately 3 to 6 percent of the total membrane protein, and that it is not accessible to the external medium unless the membrane is "energized." Thus, energy is coupled to one of the initial steps in the transport process. Studies with a photoaffinity-labeled galactoside provide independent support for this conclusion. When membrane vesicles prepared from a (D)-lactate dehydrogenase mutant of E. coli are treated with (D)-lactate dehydrogenase, the enzyme binds to the vesicles and they regain the capacity to catalyze (D)-lactate oxidation and (D)-lactate-dependent active transport. The maximal specific transport activity obtained in the reconstituted system is similar in magnitude to that of wildtype vesicles. Titration studies with dansylgalactoside demonstrate that there is at least a seven- to eightfold excess of lac carrier protein relative to (D)-lactate dehydrogenase. Evidence is presented indicating that the enzyme is bound to the inner surface of native membrane vesicles and to the outer surface of reconstituted vesicles, and that the flavin coenzyme moiety is critically involved in binding. Possible mechanisms of respirationlinked active transport are discussed.     

以Ypt1基因为靶标的致病疫霉菌Phytophthora infestans的分子检测

三磷酸鸟苷(GTP)结合蛋白基因(Ypt1)是一个与原癌基因Ras(Rat sarcoma)相关的基因,在酵母中,该基因编码一个与Ras相关GTP结合蛋白。为了研究以Ypt1基因为分子靶标的致病疫霉菌(P.infestans)检测技术,比较了30种卵菌Ypt1基因的序列,以该序列为靶标设计了1对针对P.infestans的特异性PCR引物Pi1/Pi2。试验结果表明,在供试的55种不同疫霉菌和真菌的144个菌株中,利用这1对引物只能从P.infestans基因组DNA中分别扩增出1条分子量为369 bp的特异性条带,这1对引物的检测灵敏度为100 pg。以疫霉菌Ypt1通用引物Yph1F/Yph2R结合这1对特异引物进行套式PCR扩增,使引物Pi1/Pi2的检测灵敏度提高了10倍,检测到10 pg的基因组DNA。通过套式PCR,引物Pi1/Pi2对游动孢子和卵孢子的检测灵敏度分别为3个游动孢子和1个卵孢子;以Pi1/Pi2引物,分别采用单轮PCR和套式PCR可检测马铃薯发病组织和病田土壤的致病疫霉。以上结果证明Ypt1基因适合作为疫霉菌分子检测靶标。采用以这1对特异引物建立的以PCR技术为基础的分子检测方法,可对田间土壤和发病植物组织中的P.infestans进行快速、灵敏的检测。     

Reconstitution of Ca2+-regulated membrane fusion by synaptotagmin and SNAREs

We investigated the effect of synaptotagmin I on membrane fusion mediated by neuronal SNARE proteins, SNAP-25, syntaxin, and synaptobrevin, which were reconstituted into vesicles. In the presence of Ca2+, the cytoplasmic domain of synaptotagmin I (syt) strongly stimulated membrane fusion when synaptobrevin densities were similar to those found in native synaptic vesicles. The Ca2+ dependence of syt-stimulated fusion was modulated by changes in lipid composition of the vesicles and by a truncation that mimics cleavage of SNAP-25 by botulinum neurotoxin A. Stimulation of fusion was abolished by disrupting the Ca2+-binding activity, or by severing the tandem C2 domains, of syt. Thus, syt and SNAREs are likely to represent the minimal protein complement for Ca2+-triggered exocytosis.     

马唐生防菌画眉草弯孢霉毒素α,β-dehydrocurvularin对马唐叶片PSⅡ功能的影响

 马唐[Digitaria sanguinalis (L.) Scop]生防菌画眉草弯孢霉（Curvularia eragrostidis J.A. Meyer）菌株QZ2000产生一种具有除草剂活性毒素α,β-dehydrocurvularin。毒素对马唐叶片类囊体膜光系统Ⅱ（PSⅡ）的电子传递有较强的抑制作用，当毒素浓度达到0.688 mmol·L-1时，电子传递速率比对照降低了19.37%。毒素对PSⅠ的电子传递影响较小。叶绿素荧光动力学参数测定显示，用0.516 mmol·L-1浓度的毒素处理马唐离体叶片24 h后，叶片的Fv/Fo、Fv/Fm、ΦPSⅡ、qP、qN、Fm都显著降低，而Fo呈上升趋势。试验结果显示，该毒素对PSⅡ光化学活性的抑制作用与均三氮苯类除草剂阿特拉津(Atrazine)、西玛津(Simazine)和取代脲类除草剂敌草隆（Diuron）有相似之处，叶绿素荧光动力学参数的变化表明，该毒素损坏PSⅡ中心和抑制QA的再氧化。表明该毒素可能是通过损坏PSⅡ中心及抑制QA的再氧化，使PSⅡ反应中心向QA、QB电子传递受阻，从而影响马唐的光合磷酸化与碳同化，引起马唐叶片坏死。qN的显著降低，表明毒素对PSⅡ中心的损坏也可能是由于毒素导致还原型电子受体积累增加了自由基的产生所致。     

How synaptotagmin promotes membrane fusion

Synaptic vesicles loaded with neurotransmitters are exocytosed in a soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE)-dependent manner after presynaptic depolarization induces calcium ion (Ca2+) influx. The Ca2+ sensor required for fast fusion is synaptotagmin-1. The activation energy of bilayer-bilayer fusion is very high (approximately 40 k(B)T). We found that, in response to Ca2+ binding, synaptotagmin-1 could promote SNARE-mediated fusion by lowering this activation barrier by inducing high positive curvature in target membranes on C2-domain membrane insertion. Thus, synaptotagmin-1 triggers the fusion of docked vesicles by local Ca2+-dependent buckling of the plasma membrane together with the zippering of SNAREs. This mechanism may be widely used in membrane fusion.     

Tip20p prohibits back-fusion of COPII vesicles with the endoplasmic reticulum

Directionality in intracellular trafficking is essential to ensure the correct localization of proteins along the secretory pathway. Here, we found evidence for an active mechanism that prohibited back-fusion of de novo-generated vesicles with their donor compartment. Tip20p is a peripheral membrane protein implicated in consumption of COPI vesicles at the endoplasmic reticulum. However, a specific mutant of TIP20 did not interfere with COPII vesicle generation but allowed these vesicles to fuse back to the endoplasmic reticulum, a process that does not occur normally in the cell.     

Cell biology. ER-to-Golgi traffic--this bud's for you

How do protein-transporting vesicles, which bud from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), specifically dock to, and fuse with, the Golgi apparatus? In their Perspective, Brittle and Waters discuss new work (Allan et al.) suggesting that some vesicle-associated docking and fusion proteins are "programmed" during vesicle budding from the ER and direct downstream events that occur during fusion of these transport vesicles with the membranes of the Golgi.     

Structure of Rab GDP-dissociation inhibitor in complex with prenylated YPT1 GTPase

Rab/Ypt guanosine triphosphatases (GTPases) represent a family of key membrane traffic regulators in eukaryotic cells whose function is governed by the guanosine diphosphate (GDP) dissociation inhibitor (RabGDI). Using a combination of chemical synthesis and protein engineering, we generated and crystallized the monoprenylated Ypt1:RabGDI complex. The structure of the complex was solved to 1.5 angstrom resolution and provides a structural basis for the ability of RabGDI to inhibit the release of nucleotide by Rab proteins. Isoprenoid binding requires a conformational change that opens a cavity in the hydrophobic core of its domain II. Analysis of the structure provides a molecular basis for understanding a RabGDI mutant that causes mental retardation in humans.     

A test of clathrin function in protein secretion and cell growth

Clathrin-coated membranes are intimately associated with a variety of protein transport processes in eukaryotic cells, yet no direct test of clathrin function has been possible. The data presented demonstrate that Saccharomyces cerevisiae does not require clathrin for either cell growth or protein secretion. Antiserum to the yeast clathrin heavy chain has been used to isolate a molecular clone of the heavy chain gene (CHC1) from a library of yeast DNA in lambda gt11. Clathrin-deficient mutant yeast have been obtained by replacing the single chromosomal CHC1 gene with a disrupted version of the cloned DNA. Cells harboring a nonfunctional chc1 allele produce no immunoreactive heavy chain polypeptide, and vesicles prepared from mutant cells are devoid of clathrin heavy and light chains. Although clathrin-deficient cells grow two to three times more slowly than normal, secretion of invertase occurs at a nearly normal rate. Therefore protein transport through the secretory pathway is not obligately coupled to the formation of clathrin-coated vesicles.     

Identification of synaptophysin as a hexameric channel protein of the synaptic vesicle membrane

The quaternary structure and functional properties of synaptophysin, a major integral membrane protein of small presynaptic vesicles, were investigated. Cross-linking and sedimentation studies indicate that synaptophysin is a hexameric homo-oligomer, which in electron micrographs exhibits structural features common to channel-forming proteins. On reconstitution into planar lipid bilayers, purified synaptophysin displays voltage-sensitive channel activity with an average conductance of about 150 picosiemens. Because specific channels and fusion pores have been implicated in vesicular uptake and release of secretory compounds, synaptophysin may have a role in these processes.     

The trans Golgi network: sorting at the exit site of the Golgi complex

The Golgi complex is a series of membrane compartments through which proteins destined for the plasma membrane, secretory vesicles, and lysosomes move sequentially. A model is proposed whereby these three different classes of proteins are sorted into different vesicles in the last Golgi compartment, the trans Golgi network. This compartment corresponds to a tubular reticulum on the trans side of the Golgi stack, previously called Golgi endoplasmic reticulum lysosomes (GERL).     

Methylation increases sodium transport into A6 apical membrane vesicles: possible mode of aldosterone action

When isolated apical membrane vesicles prepared from cultured A6 epithelia were incubated in vitro with the methyl donor S-adenosylmethionine, the control rate of amiloride-inhibitable sodium transport was doubled. The methylation inhibitors 3-deazaadenosine and S-adenosyl homocysteine returned the S-adenosyl-methionine-stimulated sodium transport to control levels. Neither these agents nor adenosine affected sodium transport into control vesicles. In vesicles incubated with S-adenosyl-[3H-methyl]methionine, both membrane phospholipids and proteins were labeled, and this labeling was inhibited by deazaadenosine. In vesicles prepared from A6 cells treated with aldosterone, sodium transport was twice the control value and S-adenosylmethionine did not cause any further stimulation of transport. In those vesicles, both lipid and protein methylation were increased. These results suggest that methylation, which increases the rate of amiloride-sensitive sodium transport is involved in the action of aldosterone at the apical membrane level in epithelia.     

Contruction of the Genetic Engineering Strain Expressed Nontoxic ST1-LTB Fusion Protein Against Enterotoxigenic Eschenichia coli

Thermostable enterotoxinⅠ(ST1)mutant genes and thermolabile enterotoxin B subunit(LTB)genes were amplified by PCR from plasmids of Eschenichia coli C83902.The recombinant expression plasmid pZST3LTB containing ST1-LTB fusion gene was constructed by recombinant DNA technique and then transformed into Escherichia coli BL21(DE3).The ST1-LTB fusion protein was highly expressed in recombinant strain BL21(DE3)(pZST3LTB)and the fusion protein was about 38.53% of total cellular protein by SDS-PAGE and thin-layer gel scanning analysis.More important,mice immunized with crude preparation containing the fusion protein inclusion bodies or inactivated recombinant strain produced antibodies that were able to recognize ST1 in vitro.These sera antibodies were able to neutralize the biological activity of native ST1 in the suckling mouse assay.Hence the ST1-LTB fusion protein was nontoxic and immunogenic,the constructed recombinant strain BL21(DE3)(pZST3LTB)could be used as a candidate of vaccine strain.     

小黑杨抗虫基因的遗传转化

建立了小黑杨转基因受体系统,利用农杆茵介导法将蜘蛛神经毒肽与bt基因C末端肽组成的融合基因导入小黑杨中,获得了3个小黑杨转抗虫基因植株,转化子为A1、A2、A3,并对其进行了GUS活性及目的基因PCR检测。初步证明A1、A2、A3为转基因阳性植株。     

Uptake of glutamate into synaptic vesicles by an inorganic phosphate transporter

Previous work has identified two families of proteins that transport classical neurotransmitters into synaptic vesicles, but the protein responsible for vesicular transport of the principal excitatory transmitter glutamate has remained unknown. We demonstrate that a protein that is unrelated to any known neurotransmitter transporters and that was previously suggested to mediate the Na(+)-dependent uptake of inorganic phosphate across the plasma membrane transports glutamate into synaptic vesicles. In addition, we show that this vesicular glutamate transporter, VGLUT1, exhibits a conductance for chloride that is blocked by glutamate.     

Primary structure of v-raf: relatedness to the src family of oncogenes

A replication-defective, acute transforming retrovirus (murine sarcoma virus 3611) was isolated from mouse and molecularly cloned. The nucleotide sequence of 1.5 kilobases encompassing the transforming gene (v-raf) was determined. This sequence, which predicts the amino acid sequence of a gag-raf fusion protein, terminates 180 nucleotides from the 3' end of the acquired cellular sequence. Comparison of the predicted amino acid sequence of v-raf with the predicted amino acid sequences of other oncogenes reveals significant homologies to the src family of oncogenes. There is a lack of homology within the sequence of the tyrosine acceptor domain described for the phosphotyrosine kinase members of the src family of transforming proteins. Phylogenetic arrangement of this family of oncogenes suggests that tyrosine-specific phosphorylation may be a recently acquired activity.     

A型口蹄疫病毒结构蛋白VP1的表达·纯化及活性检测李

[目的]表达口蹄疫病毒结构蛋白VP1,并对其进行纯化和相关活性的检测。[方法]以A型口蹄疫病毒结构蛋白VP1重组质粒pGEM-VP1为模板,用特异性表达引物扩增其编码区,经酶切后与pGEX-4T-1、pPROExHTb等原核表达载体相连,转化大肠杆菌BL21（DE3）pLysS表达菌株,经IPTG诱导表达,以实现VP1蛋白的表达,SDS-PAGE鉴定融合蛋白的表达并对2种载体重组菌进行超声裂解,取上清和沉淀电泳,用金属螯合亲合层析法对His-VP1进行纯化。[结果]SDS-PAGE电泳分析显示pPRO-VP1诱导后目的条带为33ku,与预期结果相符;目的蛋白纯化后,在电泳图片上显示较为清晰的单一条带;His-VP1可与A型口蹄疫病毒豚鼠灭活阳性血清发生特异性的反应。[结论]表达及纯化了具有高特异性的A型口蹄疫病毒结构蛋白VP1,为深入研究结构蛋白VP1在口蹄疫病毒致病机制中的作用奠定了基础。     

A cDNA for a protein that interacts with the human immunodeficiency virus Tat transactivator

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) tat protein (Tat) is a positive regulator of virus gene expression and replication. Biotinylated Tat was used as a probe to screen a lambda gt11 fusion protein library, and a complementary DNA encoding a protein that interacts with Tat was cloned. Expression of this protein, designated TBP-1 (for Tat binding protein-1), was observed in a variety of cell lines, with expression being highest in human cells. TBP-1 was localized predominantly in the nucleus, which is consistent with the nuclear localization of Tat. In cotransfection experiments, expression of TBP-1 was able to specifically suppress Tat-mediated transactivation. The strategy described may be useful for direct identification and cloning of genes encoding proteins that associate with other proteins to modulate their activity in a positive or negative fashion.     

Transport protein genes in the murine MHC: possible implications for antigen processing

T lymphocyte activation requires recognition by the T cell of peptide fragments of foreign antigen bound to a self major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. Genetic evidence suggests that part of the class II region of the MHC influences the expression, in trans, of MHC class I antigens on the cell surface, by regulating the availability of peptides that bind to and stabilize the class I molecule. Two closely related genes in this region, HAM1 and HAM2, were cloned and had sequence similarities to a superfamily of genes involved in the ATP-dependent transport of a variety of substrates across cell membranes. Thus, these MHC-linked transport protein genes may be involved in transporting antigen, or peptide fragments thereof, from the cytoplasm into a membrane-bounded compartment containing newly synthesized MHC molecules.