Evaluating plant and canopy resistances of field-grown wheat from concurrent diurnal observations of leaf water potential,stomatal resistance,canopy temperature,and evapotranspiration flux

Concurrent observations of leaf water potential, stomatal diffusion resistance and canopy temperature were made on two plots of wheat (Triticum aestivum L. cv. Anza) growing at Phoenix, Arizona under two different soil water conditions. These data were further complemented by weather observations and lysimeter measurements of total evaporative water loss from the plots. Transpiration fluxes for each plot were estimated by an aerodynamic-energy balance approach and compared with the lysimeter data. Plant resistances were computed from the transpiration flux results and the leaf water potential measurements using van den Honert's equation, while canopy resistances were also computed from the transpiration flux using Monteith's equation. The calculated plant resistance decreased by a factor of almost two from morning to mid-afternoon whereas the ratio of canopy and stomatal resistances was constant during most of the day.     

Der Wasserhaushalt von Fichte in Abhängigkeit von Boden und Atmosphäre

The water regime of spruce in relation to soil and atmosphere Simple observations of the water regime of potted spruce trees and measurements in the field are reported, followed by a discussion of spruce water potential in relation to soil and atmosphere water potentials. When the soil is sufficiently moist water regime of spruce is determined by the atmosphere. As higher the atmospheric demand and as lower the hydraulic conductivity of the soil as more difficult it is for a spruce plant to supply transpired water and more and more the potential transpiration rate is reduced. For short term aspects water storage in leaf tissues is of high importance. Observations show the possibility of water uptake by needles if wetted by rain or dew. The maximum amount of this way of water absorption is also given by the internal storage capacity.     

太行山山前平原冬小麦和夏玉米灌溉指标研究

根据1998～2001年的田间试验,研究了太行山山前平原高产农区主要作物冬小麦和夏玉米耗水量与产量和水分利用效率的关系,确定了这两种作物不同生育期水分敏感指数和允许的土壤水分下限指标和有限供水条件下的优化供水制度。并通过对叶片水势和冠气温差的测定,建立了这两种指标与作物水分亏缺程度的关系,形成指导农田灌溉的土壤指标、冠气温差指标和叶片水势指标体系     

夏玉米水分胁迫判别指标的研究

通过定点实验，研究了夏玉米不同水分胁迫条件下叶水势、冠层温度的变化特征，结果表明，土壤水分胁迫使夏玉米的叶水势降低，冠层温度升高，冠气温差增大。通过与良好供水的田块对照表明，叶水势和冠层温度可以作为作物水分胁迫的判别指标。     

Measurement variability in soybean water status and soil‐nutrient extraction in a row spacing study in the U.S. southeastern coastal plain

Abstract

Full‐season determinate soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merrill] was grown in the field in a humid climate for three seasons (1979–81). The objective was to examine variability in several methods of determining basic relationships between soil and plant water status in a range of canopy configurations and to examine treatment effects on soil‐nutrient extraction. In each year, two cultivars, “Davis” (group VI) and “Coker 338” (group VIII) were planted in four row spacings. In 1980 and 1981 the experiment was expanded and split for irrigation and row orientation (N—S or E‐W). Post‐harvest soil samples were collected and analyzed to determine if irrigation, row spacing, or cultivar influenced K, Ca, and Mg extraction patterns.

During the growing seasons, parallel leaf diffusive resistance (R_s) was poorly correlated with xylem pressure potential (ψ_x), canopy s x temperature (T_c), canopy minus air temperature (?T), leaf vapor pressure deficit (LVPD), and atmospheric vapor pressure deficit (VPD) in single factor correlations. Xylem pressure potential was highly correlated with T_c , ?T, VPD, and LVPD, but was poorly correlated with soil water potential. Both ψ_x and T_c were significantly affected by the imposition of shade from a 60% shading cloth within as little as 1 minute of shade imposition. The impact of cultivar on seasonal ψ_x was significant and was nearly half the magnitude of the observed difference caused by irrigation. Irrigation raised ψ_x by only 2.2 bars over the two—year observation period, in spite of large differences in soil water potential when irrigation was imposed. The impact of canopy configuration was not measureable in any water relations parameter except infrared‐determined T_c. Correlation of T and ψ_x was significantly more reliable when limited to a single variety, row spacing, and row orientation. Aspect of infrared temperature measurement also significantly affected observed T_c.

Analysis of post‐harvest soil samples indicated that narrow (50 cm) row spacing in 1980 and irrigation in 1981 significantly decreased post—harvest Mehlich No. I extractable K, but none of the cultural practices influenced extractable Ca or Mg at P(0.05). In 1980, ex‐tractable K within soybean rows was significantly greater than between rows. Similar trends were observed for Ca and Mg in 1980 and for all 3 nutrients in 1981, but those differences were not significant at P(0.05). Overall, these measurements quantify the difficulty in relating soil and plant water status and identifying nutrient extraction patterns in sandy soils within the humid U.S. Southeastern Coastal Plain.     

A model to simulate response of plant stomata to environmental conditions

In order to simulate plant transpiration under different field climatic conditions we have developed and verified a semi-empirical model for predicting the stomatal response to solar global radiation, leaf temperature, vapour pressure difference between the leaf and ambient air, ambient air CO₂ concentration and soil water potential. The transpiration and the stomatal relative conductance of a Nicotania Tabaccum var “samsun” plant leaves were measured in a laboratory apparatus and compared to those predicted by the model: good agreement was obtained between them for the different investigated cases. The model was incorporated in a numerical greenhouse microclimate model and its effects on the canopy microclimate are discussed here.     

Automated measurement of canopy stomatal conductance based on infrared temperature

Decreased water uptake closes stomates, which reduces transpiration and increases leaf temperature. The leaf or canopy temperature has long been used to make an empirical estimate of plant water stress. However, with a few supplemental measurements and application of biophysical principles, infrared measurement of canopy temperature can be used to calculate canopy stomatal conductance (g_C), a physiological variable derived from the energy balance for a plant canopy. Calculation of g_C requires an accurate measurement of canopy temperature and an estimate of plant height, but all of the other measurements are available on automated weather stations. Canopy stomatal conductance provides a field-scale measurement of daily and seasonal stomatal response to prevailing soil water and atmospheric conditions, and facilitates a comparison of models that scale conductance from single leaves (measured with porometers) to canopies. A sensitivity analysis of the input measurements/estimates showed g_C is highly sensitive to small changes in canopy and air temperature, and less sensitive to the other required measurements (relative humidity, net radiation, wind speed, and plant canopy height). The measurement of g_C becomes increasingly sensitive to all of the component factors as the conditions become cloudier, cooler, and more humid. We determined g_C for alfalfa and turfgrass by making the necessary environmental measurements and coupling them with a two-source (plant canopy layer and soil layer) energy balance model. We then compared these g_C values to maximum single leaf values scaled-up to the canopy level (g_CP, defined as potential canopy stomatal conductance herein) for the two crops. For both crops, g_C matched g_CP within approximately 10% after irrigation. The turfgrass g_C measurements were also compared to mean single leaf values measured with a porometer. At mid-day, g_C values were typically about double the single leaf values. Because this approach for determining g_C allows continuous, non-contact measurement, it has considerable potential for coupling with measurements of soil moisture to better understand plant–soil water relations. It also has potential for use in precision drought stress and irrigation scheduling.     

不同水源灌溉对水稻高温热害影响的微气象学分析

高温热害是长江中下游地区水稻常见的农业气象灾害,井水和池塘水灌溉是水稻高温热害过程中常用的农业措施。为研究高温热害下不同灌溉水源对稻田微气象的影响,以两优培九为研究对象,在高温热害期间（2016年8月12-18日）开展田间试验。试验分3个处理,T1：用池塘水每日8：00灌溉,田间水层达10cm后停止,18：00排干,灌溉水温平均30.5℃;T2：用井水每日8：00灌溉,田间水层达10cm后停止,18：00排干,灌溉水温平均18.2℃;CK：试验开始当天用池塘水灌溉至田间水深达10cm后停止,夜晚不排放,当田间水深低于5cm时补充灌溉至10cm,试验期间每日8：00田间平均水温27.2℃。对稻田不同层次的土温和水温、水稻冠层不同层次温湿度、冠层顶部（120cm）叶温、冠层上方太阳辐射等指标进行测定,用Penman-Monteith分层模式计算稻田能量平衡各分量的日变化。结果表明：白天（8：00-18：00）,所有处理各层次冠层内气温和地温均为T1>CK>T2,随着冠层高度增加,处理间气温差异逐渐减小;随着土壤深度增加各处理间地温差异逐渐减小。夜间（18：00-次日8：00）,各处理间5cm地温差异最大,其次为冠层40cm处。不同灌溉水温改变了各处理的能量平衡分量,水体含热量的变化（Q）表现为T2>CK>T1,土壤热通量（G）、显热通量（H）和潜热通量（LE）均表现为T1>CK>T2。说明较高温度的池塘水灌溉加重了水稻的高温热害,而较低温度的井水灌溉对抵御高温热害有良好效果。     

Effects of panicles on infrared thermometer measurements of canopy temperature in wheat

A study was conducted in Phoenix, AZ on stressed and unstressed field plots of Anza wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) on an Avondale loam soil (a fine, loamy, mixed calcareous hyperthermic Anthropic Torrifluvent) to determine effects of panicles on the apparent canopy temperature and their consequent impact on the estimation of crop stress. The panicles were removed from a 1.5 × 4-m sample of each plot by extracting the peduncle from the upper sheath. For each treatment canopy radiative temperature measurements were made from vertical and oblique angles (30° from the horizontal), using an 8° field-of-view (FOV) infrared thermometer, at half-hour intervals from sunrise to sunset on 20, 22, and 30 April. Complementary measurements included leaf water potential and leaf diffusive resistance.Apparent canopy temperatures obtained from the oblique view of the canopy with panicles and under well-watered conditions were 2°C warmer than those of the unstressed canopy without panicles. In the stressed plot the canopy with panicles was 1°C cooler than that without panicles, but this effect was only noticed around 1200 MST. The temperature difference between viewing angles was apparently caused by different percentages of panicle area viewed by the radiometer. In the vertical view panicles contributed to 3% of the total viewed area while at the 30° oblique view panicles comprised 40% of the area. Since energy balance calculations of a non-transpiring cylinder with dimensions similar to a typical wheat panicle showed its temperature would remain very close to that of the surrounding air, canopy temperatures were adjusted for the proportion of panicles viewed assuming they were in equilibrium with air temperature. Results showed the corrected canopy temperatures of the canopy with panicles were the same as those measured in the canopy without panicles. Such a correction is necessary to avoid an overestimate of the stress level and an underestimate of differences between treatments. Crops with non-transpiring and/or well-ventilated morphological structures above the foliage will require this correction if radiative canopy temperatures are to be used in irrigation management programs or stress detection studies.     

红壤坡地农业景观(旱季)地表界面水分传输研究——Ⅱ．叶面冠层一大气界面水分传输

定位观测红壤坡地典型作物系统叶面冠层 大气界面水分传输结果表明 ,叶面冠层 大气界面水汽传输通量大小取决于景观植物群落的构建 ,稳定群落叶面冠层 大气界面水汽传输通量有明显日变化规律 ,除受植物生理机制影响外 ,还明显受土壤水分和气象条件的影响。植株叶片蒸腾速率有明显日变化规律且呈单峰型曲线及多峰态势。净辐射、空气饱和水汽压差、气温、地表温度、风速对蒸腾的影响均达极显著水平 (正相关 ) ,其中净辐射、气温为主要影响因子。叶片气孔导度可反映叶片蒸腾速率 ,叶片气孔阻力日变化规律是植物对气象条件的响应 ,且受土壤水分状况强烈影响。改善作物生长环境 ,调节气孔行为 ,进而协调作物蒸腾作用和光合作用耗水制约 ,可调控叶面冠层 大气界面水分传输 ,提高作物水分利用效率     

Determining soil water‐balance components using an irrigated grass lysimeter in NE Austria

The water balance of a certain soil profile in a certain time interval is subjected to changes of soil water content within the respective profile, and fluxes at its upper and lower boundary. Weighing lysimeters are valuable instruments for water‐balance studies. Typically, mass changes—thus, changes of soil profile water content—are detected by a weighing system, while seepage water outflow is measured by a tipping bucket, and precipitation data originate from a rain gauge. Hence, evapotranspiration as unknown component can be determined by solving a simple water‐balance equation. However, using separately measured precipitation data may cause implausible (negative) evapotranspiration. In this study, change of soil profile water content, seepage water, precipitation, and evapotranspiration were determined directly from 10‐min lysimeter data from 2011. Precipitation measured with the lysimeter was in total 20% greater than rain‐gauge values. Even dew formation was measured and considered as water‐balance component; however, its total amount was rather low. Evapotranspiration calculated on daily and hourly base indicated a sound correlation with measured data, but measured values were considerably smaller. Both calculated and measured dew amount were of the same magnitude. Comparison of lysimeter evapotranspiration with daily calculations (neglecting dew) and hourly computation (considering dew) delivered similar results. Generally, the utilized lysimeter facility and the specific data management provided sound water‐balance components with high accuracy and temporal resolution, respectively.     

基于能量平衡的华北平原农田蒸散量的估算

通过测定冬小麦主要生育期农田冠层能量平衡的各分量、少风晴天时冠层温度和气温日变化及每周叶面积指数,分析了农田冠层能量平衡日变化规律、各分量季节变化特征,并以波文比系统实测蒸散值为相对标准,基于遥感冠层表面温度和能量平衡原理,采用Brown-Rosenberg公式对农田蒸散进行了估算和验证。结果表明：考虑夜间能量平衡各分量变化时,土壤热通量只占净辐射的3%左右,且夜间潜热交换值均很小,都在零左右波动;采用Brown-Rosenberg公式引入遥感冠层温度后估算的蒸散量较波文比系统实测值稍大,但忽略土壤热通量和考虑土壤热通量相比,二者相对平均偏差分别为16%和10%左右,差别不大,说明拔节-灌浆期（LAI≥3）估算蒸散时可近似忽略土壤热通量和夜间农田蒸散量,利用Brown-Rosenberg公式估算区域蒸散可行,该方法适用于华北平原农田蒸散计算。研究结果为将Brown-Rosenberg公式引入作物模型、基于热红外遥感冠层表面温度计算区域蒸散和水分胁迫系数进行区域估产提供了地面试验依据。     

作物缺水指数新方法的验证

尝试用胶水涂抹叶片制成模拟叶片，在冬小麦主产区之一的河北栾城进行了6种水分处理的冬小麦田间试验，以进一步验证模拟叶片温度法估算CWSI的可行性。结果表明：Tcu（最高冠层温度）与Tp（模拟叶片温度）具有极显著相关性（r=0．977（n=31））；由Tp确定的CWSI与由Jackson模式确定的CWSI拟合程度很高（r=0．999（n=123））；由Tp确定的CWSI与土壤含水量、叶片水势间也存在相关关系，这些都说明CWSI可用来指示土壤和作物的水分状态。     

Assessing the protective effect of vertically heterogeneous canopies against radiative frost: The case of quinoa on the Andean Altiplano

Night radiative frost is a highly limiting factor for agriculture in Andean highlands. Nevertheless, a diversity of crop species have been domesticated there, commonly showing high heterogeneity in plant growth at the field level. The possible protective effect of crop canopy heterogeneity against nocturnal radiative frost is examined using a dual approach, combining a field experiment and a simplified energy balance model at the leaf level. Leaf and air temperatures were registered over an entire quinoa crop cycle in the Andean highlands of Bolivia, comparing two cultivars: Blanca de Yanamuyu, a traditional landrace with high plant height heterogeneity, and Surumi, a more homogeneous selected variety. In both cultivars, inverted air density profiles during calm and clear nights result in air temperature changes up to 3 °C over 0.5 m height, with minimum air temperature concentrated at the upper part of the canopy. In these conditions, leaf temperature gradients of up to 2.6 °C m⁻¹ develop within the canopy of the traditional landrace, with minimum leaf temperature significantly higher (P < 0.001) in shaded plants of the landrace than in the selected cultivar. A dynamic model of leaf temperature based on canopy parameters and climatic records at screen level adequately simulates leaf temperature differences in the case of a vertically heterogeneous quinoa canopy. A sensitivity analysis of the model reveals that canopy height, leaf area index, and sky cloudiness have the most important influences on the development of the sheltering effect, while air temperature and air humidity play a minor role under typical radiative frost conditions. As for wind speed, its actual influence remains unclear due to experimental and modelling limitations at low wind speeds. The significance of these results is discussed in terms of the trade-off between stress adaptation and biomass productivity.     

土壤水分对夏玉米农田CO2通量和群体水分利用率的影响

利用ＣＯ₂分析系统,配合波文比装置,在夏玉米全生育期连续测定农田冠层瞬时ＣＯ₂浓度差及农田小气候特征量,并计算了农田冠层瞬时ＣＯ₂通量密度、潜热通量和群体水分利用率。结果表明,群体光饱和点位移是受土壤水分影响的一个辐射能量范围,充沛的太阳辐射能量只有充足水分条件的耦合,才能发挥生产力效益;群体水分利用率与０～６０ｃｍ土层土壤平均相对含水率呈负相关,土壤相对含水率在３０.３％～８０％范围内,水分利用率随相对含水率的增加而降低。     

夏玉米农田SPAC系统水分传输势能及其变化规律研究

试验测定华北平原夏玉米农田SPAC系统不同界面的水势,并计算水流传输阻力结果表明,大气水势和叶水势均呈明显日变化,最大值出现在日出前;大气水势日变幅最大,土壤水势主要受土壤含水量的影响而日变化较平缓。夏玉米植株由下部至上部呈逐渐降低的水势梯度,水流在SPAC系统传输过程中不同界面间存在明显的水势梯度和较大的阻力,从叶片至大气的阻力远大于由土壤至叶片的传输阻力,证明从叶片至大气阻力对限制与调节作物水分散失强度和数量具有关键作用。     

Water use efficiency in a soybean field: influence of plant water stress

Measurements were made in 1980 over a fully-developed soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merrill) canopy at Mead, Nebraska to determine how crop water status influences photosynthesis, evapotranspiration and water use efficiency. Water use efficiency was calculated in terms of the CO₂—water flux ratio (CWFR). Micrometeorological techniques were used to measure the exchange rates of CO₂ and water vapor above the crop canopy. Crop water status was evaluated by reference to volumetric soil moisture (θ_v), stomatal resistance (r_s), and leaf water potential (ψ) measurements.Stomatal resistance (r_s) was independent of ψ when the latter was greater than ?1.1 MPa. r_s increased sharply as ψ dropped below this threshold. Canopy CO₂ exchange (F_c) decreased logarithmically with increasing r_s under strong irradiance. Although F_c was found to be strongly correlated with r_s, the influence of low values of ψ and of high air temperature cannot be discounted since these factors affect the enzymatic reactions associated with photosynthesis. Stomatal closure also reduced evapotranspiration and influenced the partitioning of net radiation.Under strong irradiance the CO₂ water flux ratio (CWFR) decreased with increasing stomatal resistance. This observation is at variance with predictions of certain early ‘resistance’ models, but substantiates predictions of some recent models in which leaf energy balance considerations are incorporated.     

干旱胁迫及复水对耐旱枸杞水力学特性的影响

耐旱枸杞是西北干旱地区重要的经济作物,为进一步明确枸杞水分运输特性,提高农业生产潜力,在甘肃省古浪县农业示范基地(37.09°N,102.79°E)以2年生‘宁杞1号’、‘宁杞5号’和‘蒙杞1号’3个枸杞品种苗木为试验材料,设计3个处理[N:正常水分;M:中度干旱;S:重度干旱],研究干旱胁迫对光合速率、气孔导度、冠层和根系导水率的影响,以及干旱胁迫后复水对枝条导水率的影响。结果表明:随着干旱程度增加,枸杞冠层、枝条和根系导水率均下降,‘宁杞5号’在干旱胁迫后植株导水率的减小和根系导水阻力在整个植株中所占比例的增大最显著;通过拟合木质部脆弱性曲线发现,‘宁杞1号’导水率损失50%时木质部水势显著高于‘宁杞5号’和‘蒙杞1号’。枸杞叶片净光合速率和气孔导度与植株叶片导水速率具有显著相关性。干旱胁迫复水后植物生长主要取决于根系恢复吸水的能力,干旱胁迫复水4 d后苗木导水率呈现不同程度的恢复,‘蒙杞1号’导水率恢复速度最快,并出现显著补偿效应,恢复速度最慢的为‘宁杞5号’。综合分析表明,枸杞耐旱特性与导水能力有关,根系导水对干旱胁迫的敏感性可以反映植株持续抗旱能力,干旱胁迫复水后根系导水率恢复能力和补偿效应对植株在逆境条件下土壤水分利用具有显著影响,调控根系导水率对于提高土壤水分利用率具有重要意义。     

Evaluation of canopy temperature—evapotranspiration models over various crops

Canopy temperatures, when measured remotely, offer a method of estimating evapotranspiration with surface energy balance models. Equations which have been developed by others have been evaluated only at a limited number of locations and with a few crops. Our study was conducted at several locations with weighing lysimeters with a variety of crops around the United States: Brawley, CA; Temple, TX; Lincoln, NE; St. Paul, MN; Fargo, ND; Kimberly, ID; and Davis, CA, to evaluate evapotranspiration utilizing canopy temperature as an input into the surface energy balance. The results show that evapotranspiration calculated from the aerodynamic resistance form of the surface energy balance was well correlated with lysimeter measurements at all locations. The errors using the surface energy balance were less than 10% in all cases for full ground cover. The Bartholic—Namken—Wiegand method was more closely coupled to net radiation than canopy temperature.Under partial canopy cover, differences between the two models were apparent. The Bartholic—Namken—Wiegand model overpredicted when the actual evapotranspiration was above 200 W m^?2 because of its insensitivity to surface temperature. However, the surface energy balance model exhibited only a slight overprediction above 200 W m^?2 when a weighed composite surface temperature (representative of bare soil and crop temperature) was used. This small overprediction could be overcome by considering the soil heat flux term. There was no location bias in the surface energy balance model, which shows that it should work well at other locations.     

表层有效土壤水分参数化及冠层下土面蒸发模拟

通过观测田间微气象数据、土壤表层水分变化状况及荞麦作物冠层下土面蒸发等资料,引进一个表面体积含水率的函数,构建了基于表层有效土壤水分的土壤蒸发模型。该模型包含了土面蒸发的2个过程:水蒸气从土壤孔隙中扩散到地表面及水蒸气由地表面传输到大气中。模型中表层有效土壤水分参数不仅取决于表层土壤含水状况,而且受风速影响。采用波文比能量平衡法及微型蒸发器观测荞麦地实际蒸腾蒸发量及冠层下土面蒸发的变化规律,并验证模型精度。结果表明,所构建模型可以成功预测冠层下土面蒸发,其平均相对误差为13.5%。该研究对于实现土壤蒸发及作物蒸腾的分离估算,减少无效水分消耗具有重要意义。