Effects of cereal roots on detachment rates of single- and double-drilled topsoils during concentrated flow

Farmers in Europe want to control soil erosion in ways that are easily incorporated in their normal practices. We have investigated the possibility of reducing soil erosion by concentrated flow (i.e. rill and gully erosion) through increasing the root density of cereal crops. In situ root density measurements on cereal fields were combined with laboratory flume experiments on samples, taken in single‐ and double‐drilled fields, of which the above‐ground biomass was clipped. During the laboratory experiments no significant effect of root densities on critical shear stress or channel erodibility was observed because of interactions with other changing parameters (e.g. ageing effects). Therefore, the expected relative detachment rates as a function of plant root density were calculated using an empirical equation. During the first 75 days of the crop growth season relative soil detachment rates for single‐drilled field parcels can be reduced up to 50% compared with a rootless field, whereas relative soil detachment rates in double‐drilled field parcels can be reduced up to 60% in this period. Thereafter, plant roots in double‐drilled field parcels reduce relative soil detachment rates on average by 9% compared with single‐drilled field parcels (up to an absolute maximum of 90% compared with rootless soils). During the growing season, not only root density increases but also the vegetation cover changes, which enhances soil protection from erosion. Therefore, cereal roots will help to conserve the soil when seed is drilled at double rates, especially during the early growth stages and in fields with medium risk of concentrated flow.     

Effects of double drilling of small grains on soil erosion by concentrated flow and crop yield

Soil erosion on agricultural land and its detrimental environmental and economical effects has aroused increased interest among both the research and policy-making communities. The call for erosion control measures adapted to local farming practices is high, especially in Europe where farmers are reluctant to adopt soil conservation techniques. This study investigates a new technique for controlling concentrated flow erosion rates in the loess belt of central Belgium: i.e. double drilling of cereals in zones of concentrated flow. Cross-sectional areas of erosion channels as well as crop yield parameters in single- and double-drilled zones were compared. The technique is based on the combined effect of the increased density of plant shoots and roots for reducing soil loss. Results indicate that double drilling can reduce soil loss through concentrated flow by 25% on average and by up to 40% under optimal conditions. No net change in wheat grain yield was observed, and farmers who participated in the experiments were satisfied with the results and the easy application of the technique. Globally, benefits were larger than costs. However, the effectiveness of the technique in reducing soil loss by concentrated flow erosion seems to be topographically restricted. For positions in the landscape with a contributing drainage area larger than ca. 0.75 ha, the effectiveness of double drilling can be doubted. Double drilling should therefore be regarded as one possibility amongst others to reduce concentrated flow erosion rates in farmers’ fields.     

不同生长期大豆坡耕地土壤抗侵蚀能力特征

土壤抗侵蚀能力特征是土壤侵蚀预测预报的重要依据之一,为了分析黄土区不同生长期大豆坡耕地土壤抗侵蚀能力特征,采用原状土冲刷槽和静水崩解法,分别在大豆不同生长期测定坡耕地不同土层土壤抗冲性和抗蚀性,并对大豆根系特征与土壤抗侵蚀能力的关系进行分析。结果表明:随着大豆生育期的推进呈现出先增强后减弱的趋势,始粒期土壤抗侵蚀能力最强,苗期最弱;在大豆苗期与分枝期,土壤抗侵蚀能力随土层深度的增加而减弱;大豆开花期以后10~20 cm土层土壤抗侵蚀能力最强,其次为0~5 cm土层;土壤根重密度、根系表面积、根系体积及根系长度对土壤抗侵蚀能力影响均达到极显著水平(p0.01),且根径在0~0.5 mm之间根系的增多会更加有效地提高土壤的抗侵蚀能力。这表明在大豆生长初期加强对坡面的有效防护,避免地表长期裸露,培育根系发达的大豆品种将有助于对坡耕地土壤侵蚀的防控。     

Cover crops and their erosion-reducing effects during concentrated flow erosion

Cover crops are a very effective erosion control and environmental conservation technique. When cover crops freeze at the beginning of the winter period, the above-ground biomass becomes less effective in protecting the soil from water erosion, but roots can still play an important role in improving soil strength. However, information on root properties of common cover crops growing in temperate climates (e.g. Sinapis alba (white mustard), Phacelia tanacetifoli (phacelia), Lolium perenne (ryegrass), Avena sativa (oats), Secale cereale (rye), Raphanus sativus subsp. oleiferus (fodder radish)) is very scarce. Therefore, root density distribution with soil depth and the erosion-reducing effect of these cover crops during concentrated flow erosion were assessed by conducting root auger measurements and controlled concentrated flow experiments with 0.1 m topsoil samples. The results indicate that root density of the studied cover crops ranges between 1.02 for phacelia and 2.95 kg m^− 3 for ryegrass. Cover crops with thick roots (e.g. white mustard and fodder radish) are less effective than cover crops with fine-branched roots (e.g. ryegrass and rye) in preventing soil losses by concentrated flow erosion. Moreover, after frost, the erosion-reducing potential of phacelia and oats roots decreased. Amoeba diagrams, taking into account both below-ground and above-ground plant characteristics, identified ryegrass, rye, oats and white mustard as the most suitable species for controlling concentrated flow erosion.     

Effects of long-term winter wheat, summer fallow residue and nutrient management on field hydrology for a silt loam in north-central Oregon

In a region where water is the primary limiting factor of crop production, loss of water from fields by overland flow represents an economic loss to producers. Traditional crop management practices in north-central Oregon have led to crop water loss by overland flow. In 1931, a long-term experiment was begun near Pendleton, Oregon, in a Walla Walla silt loam (coarse-silty, mixed, mesic Typic Haploxeroll—US; Kastanozems—FAO), to examine the influence on soil fertility and crop production by nutrient amendments and crop residue management practices. This experiment provided the opportunity to evaluate the influence of a several traditional farming practices on field hydrology. Tillage in all treatments consisted of moldboard plowing and multiple passes with secondary tillage equipment to smooth the surface for planting and for weed control. The treatments were combinations of nutrient amendments (0.90 kg N ha⁻¹ commercial fertilizer, and 145 kg N ha⁻¹ from manure) and residue management (fall-burn, spring-burn, and no-burn), whose soil organic carbon increased with increasing nutrient amendments. These treatments were in a winter wheat–fallow system and represent a set of past and current cultural practices. Overland flow from these treatments was measured. Lister furrows separated the plots of 12 m×40 m (≈0.05 ha) to prevent overland flow from treatment to treatment and were instrumented with weirs to capture and measure overland flow. To determine if hydrologic differences existed between treatments, we tested the overland flow to precipitation (Q/P) ratio. The Q/P ratio (P<0.15) was greatest within crop year/low soil fertility (0 kg N ha⁻¹, burn) whereas the high fertility (145 kg N ha⁻¹, no-burn) treatment crop year plots Q/P ratios were similar to fallow, standing stubble plots. Most notably, the manure amendment plots in crop, produce significantly less overland flow than the other residue and nutrient management practices, and marginally less overland flow than treatments in stubble. This research demonstrates that overland flow was greater from low fertility and stubble burned treatments. Increased overland flow increases the risk of soil erosion and loss of water to overland flow is potentially a loss of needed soil water for crop growth and production.     

降雨强度和单宽流量与地表粗糙度交互作用下坡面流阻力特征

为探明降雨和地表颗粒共同影响下的坡面流阻力变化特征及形成机理,在15?定床条件下,分别研究了4个粗糙度(0.009,0.18,0.25,0.425 mm)和4个降雨强度(0,60,90,120 mm/h)在9个单宽流量(0.397~2.049L/(m·s))冲刷下的坡面流流速、流态指数、阻力系数、雷诺数等水动力学参数间的关系及变化特征。结果表明:1)坡面流流速与粗糙度呈反比,与降雨强度呈正比。流态指数m的计算结果显示(m0.5),坡面水流能量主要转化为动能形式;2)试验条件下,雷诺数变化范围为300~2 300,达西阻力系数变化范围为0~3.0,颗粒阻力和降雨阻力皆随着雷诺数的增加而减少,随着水深的增加,降雨对坡面流施加的影响逐渐减小。坡面总阻力系数与粗糙度成正比,与雷诺数和雨强成反比,降雨具有"减阻"效果;3)计算降雨阻力与颗粒阻力线性叠加值与坡面流总阻力的差异,结果表明坡面流总阻力大于线性叠加的结果,t检验结果显示差异显著(sig.0.0030.05),表明将坡面流阻力分量线性叠加计算坡面流总阻力的方法具有一定局限性;进一步构建降雨及地表颗粒影响下的坡面流阻力通式,具有良好的模拟效果。研究成果为深入探明坡面流阻力形成机理和构建坡面侵蚀模型提供科学依据。     

Effect of plot scale and an upslope phosphorus source on phosphorus loss in overland flow

Abstract. Phosphorus (P) in overland flow is mediated by soil P, added P, erosion, and hydrological processes and their interaction as affected by landscape position and length of flow. We investigated the effect of flow path length (1 to 10 m long plots) on P transport in overland flow with and without a localized dairy manure application (75 kg P ha^–1 added to the upslope end [0.5 m] of each plot) and simulated rainfall (7 cm h^–1), at two sites within an agricultural watershed in Pennsylvania, USA. Particulate loss in overland flow was c . 20% greater from manured than unmanured plots due to the less dense nature of manure than soil. Increased soil moisture at Site 2 contributed to a greater loss of P compared to Site 1, both with and without manure; with most occurring as particulate P (60 to 90% of total P). Further, the selective erosion of fine particulates (24 to 34% clay) and P loss increased with plot length. From a management perspective our results demonstrate that the forms and amounts of P loss are greatly influenced by flow path length and interactions among antecedent moisture, soil P, and texture.     

冬水前移对冬小麦生长及水分利用效率的影响

玉米秸秆粉碎还田+旋耕播种是晋西南小麦玉米一年两熟区小麦季的主要栽培模式,冬前灌水可塌实土壤、加快秸秆腐熟、确保小麦安全越冬。为探明合理运筹越冬水对培育冬前壮苗、增加小麦产量、提高籽粒水分利用率的影响,在山西省临汾市尧都区,设置4个冬小麦冬前灌水时间处理,分别为11月10日、11月25日、12月10日和12月25日,以冬小麦传统灌冬水时间(12月10日)为对照(CK),研究冬前灌水时间对冬小麦冬前群体茎数、根系、旗叶光合性能和土壤容重、酶活性影响。结果表明:与不灌冬水的处理相比,冬前灌水可塌实耕层土壤、调节土壤容重,利于小麦根系与土壤紧密接触,增强土壤酶活性、提高土壤肥力,促进冬小麦分蘖和次生根的发生。与传统冬前灌水时间(12月10日)相比,冬水前移对小麦生长有补偿作用,使冬前总茎数、单株茎数、次生根数、根干重增加,延长了旗叶的功能期,提高了叶绿素含量和光合速率,促进光合产物的合成转化,使成穗数增加1.66%~5.37%,千粒重增加0.55%~3.03%。玉米秸秆粉碎还田+旋耕播种条件下,小麦冬前灌水时间由传统昼消夜冻(12月10日)前移一个节气,即11月25日左右,主茎叶龄3叶到3叶1心的分蘖初期,可使小麦增产8.40%,水分利用效率提高5.76%,达22.05 kg·mm~(-1)·hm~(-2)。     

Seasonal variations in soil erosion resistance during concentrated flow for a loess-derived soil under two contrasting tillage practices

Soil erodibilty during concentrated flow (K_c) and critical flow shear stress (τ_cr), both reflecting the soil's resistance to erosion by concentrated runoff, are important input parameters in many physically-based soil erosion models. Field data on the spatial and temporal variability of these parameters is limited but crucial for accurate prediction of soil loss by rill or gully erosion. In this study, the temporal variations in K_c and τ_cr for a winter wheat field on a silt loam soil under three different tillage practices (conventional ploughing, CP; shallow non-inversion tillage, ST; deep non-inversion tillage, DT) in the Belgian Loess Belt were monitored during one growing season. Undisturbed topsoil samples (0.003 m³) were taken every three weeks and subjected to five different flow shear stresses (τ = 4–45 Pa) in a laboratory flume to simulate soil detachment by concentrated flow. To explain the observed variation, relevant soil and environmental parameters were measured at the time of sampling. Results indicated that after two years of conservation tillage, K_c(CP) > K_c(DT) > K_c(ST). K_c values can be up to 10 times smaller for ST compared to CP but differences strongly vary over time, with an increasing difference with decreasing soil moisture content. The beneficial effects of no-tillage are not reflected in τ_cr. K_c values vary from 0.006 to 0.05 sm⁻¹ for CP and from 0.0008 to 0.01 sm⁻¹ for ST over time. Temporal variations in K_c can be mainly explained by variations in soil moisture content but consolidation effects, root growth, residue decomposition and the presence of microbiotic soil crusts as well play a role. τ_cr values increase with increasing soil shear strength but K_c seems more appropriate to represent the temporal variability in soil erosion resistance during concentrated flow. The large intra-seasonal variations in K_c, which are shown to be at least equally important as differences between different soil types reported in literature, demonstrate the importance of incorporating temporal variability in soil erosion resistance when modelling soil erosion by concentrated flow.     

雨强和糙度对坡面薄层流水动力学特性的影响

基于流体力学和水力学基本理论,通过6个糙度、5个流量和5种雨强组合条件下的放水冲刷和模拟降雨试验,研究雨强和糙度对坡面流水动力学特性的影响。结果表明:在坡面薄层水流中,床面糙度对坡面流阻力有"增阻"效应,但在粗糙尺度为1.77 mm时产生拐点;降雨条件下,坡面流自由表面失稳的动态演化过程显著,其波动临界条件为黏深比0.382 4、0.599 3,在整个动态过程中阻力系数都随着降雨强度增加而减小;结合黏滞阻力、雨强阻力构建层流过渡区阻力计算公式,决定系数为0.92(P0.05),可以较好地为坡面流模型的建立提供参考依据。研究成果有助于从泥沙运动力学的角度揭示坡面流层流失稳的本质,为坡面流理论的发展奠定基础。     

黄土丘陵区冻融对土壤抗冲性及相关物理性质的影响

在股状水流侵蚀比较发育的黄土丘陵区,土壤可蚀性主要依赖于土壤抗冲能力。为了揭示季节性冻融对土壤抗冲性的影响,该文借助模拟冲刷试验,设置了裸地对照(CK)、黑麦草传统密度(LD)和加倍密度(HD)3种处理,测定并分析了冻融前后土壤物理性质及其抗冲性。结果表明,与冻融前相比,表层土壤容重、团聚体含量和根系密度在3个处理中均未发生显著变化(P<0.05),土壤黏聚力略有下降,而崩解速率在处理CK、LD和HD中分别增加了20.6%、18.8%和7.3%。冻融作用延后了3个处理的主要产沙时间,降低了土壤抗冲能力,增加了冲刷中途泥沙流失速率。与未冻融相比,冻融作用增加了处理CK和LD泥沙流失量为19.41%和6.70%,但对处理HD影响较小(P<0.05)。冻融和根系共同作用在LD和HD处理上分别减少土壤流失量为3.72%和49.39%。该研究期望对完善土壤侵蚀机理提供一定的参考价值。     

黄土风沙区根系强化抗冲性土体构型的定量化研究

为了探明黄土风沙区根系网络串连、根土黏结及生物化学作用对于创造抗冲性土体构型的相对重要性,以沙黄土为研究对象,通过含根土壤、无根土壤及模拟根系土壤冲刷试验,分析了根系固土总效应、物理固结效应及生物化学效应等参数.结果表明:物理固结效应在根系总效应中的贡献值平均为70.9％;与苜蓿密度90株/m2相比,物理固结效应在处理360株/m2中增加了6.8％;在物理固结效应中,根系串连作用较为关键,平均占比78.2％;根系物理固结效应与根表面积密度在极显著水平(P＜0.0l)上呈指数递增函数关系.植物根系物理固结效应是强化沙黄土抗冲性土体构型的主要表现形式,且根表面积密度可较好地反映根系固土效应.     

两种草本植物根系对土壤可蚀性的影响

为揭示草本植物根系对土壤抗侵蚀能力的影响,选取白三叶（Trifolium repens L.）、黑麦草（Loliu perenne L.）及两者混播根系为研究对象,通过冲刷试验,研究了3种种植类型的根系特征及对土壤可蚀性影响。结果表明:（1）白三叶、黑麦草及混播草的根长密度（RLD）、根面积比（RAR）及根重密度（RMD）由春季到秋季呈现先升高后降低最后趋于稳定的变化趋势。（2）试验期内,土壤可蚀性大小顺序为白三叶 < 黑麦草 < 混播草 < 裸地。3种种植类型的土壤可蚀性与土壤容重、水稳性团聚体、RLD、RAR及RMD呈指数函数形式下降（R²>0.70）。（3）土壤可蚀性与0～1.0 mm径级根系极显著正相关（p<0.01）,与1.0～2.0 mm,0～2.0 mm显著正相关（p<0.05）。     

台田措施下坡面流土壤侵蚀水动力学特征

通过野外径流小区放水试验,研究2种台田类型(土坎,石坎)、3种台田级数(1,2,3级)、1种坡度(10°)、3种放水流量(0.5,1,1.5m~3/h)下坡面流土壤侵蚀过程,分析台田措施下坡面流土壤侵蚀水动力学特征。结果表明,台田级数对坡面流流态影响较大,增加台田级数可使坡面流波动性降低,台田类型对雷诺数影响相对较小。土壤分离速率总体随流量增大而增大,相同流量条件下,呈波动性增加后减少且逐渐趋于平稳的特征,两者相关关系用指数函数回归方程拟合(R20.840)。同类台田且田面宽度和相同条件下,土壤分离速率与台田级数呈负相关关系,阻力系数与流量呈负相关关系,坡面流土壤分离速率与阻力系数呈负相关关系。研究结果对认识坡面流土壤侵蚀的过程和规律具有重要意义,也为坡面侵蚀物理模型的建立提供参考。     

土壤侵蚀过程中坡面流水力学特性及侵蚀动力研究评述

土壤侵蚀动力过程是水流和土壤两者相互作用的复杂物理过程,而含沙水流是土壤侵蚀的主要动力,深入理解坡面流水力学特征及侵蚀动力是研究土壤侵蚀动力学规律的基础.本文从坡面流水力学特性及侵蚀动力,包括:流速、水深、流态、阻力规律以及坡面流的切应力、冲刷动力、运动能量等多方面对国内外关于土壤侵蚀动力过程研究进行了系统深入的评述,并探讨了研究中存在的问题,重点指出:坡面流作为三维、非恒定非均匀沿程变量流,流动形态千变万化,坡面状况较为复杂,其均匀流理论远不能真实反应自然界复杂地表状况下的水流水力学特性及其变化规律.开展复杂地表的水流运动过程、水力学参数变化规律及坡面侵蚀水动力过程研究是今后土壤侵蚀水动力学研究的重要方向,这对于深入了解土壤侵蚀水动力过程的内在机制、构建物理侵蚀模型具有重要的研究意义.     

The PESERA coarse scale erosion model for Europe. I. – Model rationale and implementation

The principles and theoretical background are presented for a new process‐based model (PESERA) that is designed to estimate long‐term average erosion rates at 1 km resolution and has, to date, been applied to most of Europe. The model is built around a partition of precipitation into components for overland flow (infiltration excess, saturation excess and snowmelt), evapo‐transpiration and changes in soil moisture storage. Transpiration is used to drive a generic plant growth model for biomass, constrained as necessary by land use decisions, primarily on a monthly time step. Leaf fall, with corrections for cropping, grazing, etc., also drives a simple model for soil organic matter. The runoff threshold for infiltration excess overland flow depends dynamically on vegetation cover, organic matter and soil properties, varying over the year. The distribution of daily rainfall totals has been fitted to a Gamma distribution for each month, and drives overland flow and sediment transport (proportional to the sum of overland flow squared) by summing over this distribution. Total erosion is driven by erodibility, derived from soil properties, squared overland flow discharge and gradient; it is assessed at the slope base to estimate total loss from the land, and delivered to stream channels.     

栽培方式对玉米根系生长及水分利用效率的影响

为进一步明确我国西北地区全膜双垄沟播玉米栽培技术的增产机理,为干旱半干旱地区玉米高产栽培提供理论与技术支持,2008—2009年采用田间试验方法,研究了7种不同栽培方式对陇东地区旱地玉米根系时空分布、产量及水分利用效率的影响。结果表明:不同栽培方式下玉米根系长度和根干重均随生育期的推进逐渐增加,且随土层的加深呈逐渐下降趋势。其中,全膜双垄沟播等行距种植模式0~150 cm土层玉米根系长度显著大于半膜双垄沟播、常规地膜覆盖和露地种植模式(P<0.05);120~150 cm土层根长百分比表现为全膜双垄沟播撮苗种植模式最大,全膜双垄沟播等行距种植模式次之,露地种植模式最小;根干重主要集中在0~30 cm土层,且垄沟>垄中,全膜双垄沟播>常规覆膜>半膜双垄沟播,等行距种植>撮苗种植;与半膜双垄沟播、常规地膜覆盖和露地种植模式相比,全膜双垄沟播等行距种植玉米籽粒产量分别提高17.72%、22.01%和47.00%,水分利用效率分别提高6.41%、18.54%和43.57%,是陇东地区旱作玉米的最佳栽培方式。     

退耕驱动的近地表特性变化对土壤侵蚀的潜在影响

黄土高原是我国、乃至全球土壤侵蚀最严重的区域之一,侵蚀强度及时空分布特征受近地表特性的显著影响.退耕还林(草)工程大面积的有效实施,势必会引起近地表特性(土壤理化性质、植被茎秆、枯落物、生物结皮、根系系统)的显著变化,进而对坡面径流的水动力学特性及侵蚀过程产生影响.本文从退耕驱动的近地表特性变化、近地表特性变化对坡面径流水动力学特性的影响、近地表特性变化对土壤侵蚀过程(土壤分离、泥沙输移、泥沙沉积)的影响及其机制、区域土壤侵蚀对退耕的响应4个方面较为系统地总结近几十年国内外的研究成果,并提出了目前亟待强化的研究领域.这对理解退耕坡面土壤侵蚀过程及其动力机制、建立植被覆盖坡面的土壤侵蚀过程模型、评价退耕坡面的水土保持效益,具有重要的理论意义.     

The role of tillage and crops on a soil loss of an arable Stagnic Luvisol

The poor physical, chemical and biological properties make Stagnic Luvisol highly susceptible to water erosion on sloping terrains. The objective of this paper is to estimate the effect of different tillage treatments and crops (maize, soybean, winter wheat, spring barley, oilseed rape) on water erosion. The highest erosion in investigation period (1995–2014) was recorded in the control treatment with fallow, followed by the treatment that involved ploughing and sowing up and down the slope. Significantly, lower soil losses were recorded in no-tillage and treatments with ploughing and sowing across the slope. Regarding the crops significantly higher soil losses were recorded in spring row crops (maize and soybean) compared to high-density winter crops (wheat and oilseed rape) and double crop (spring barley with soybean). In the studied period, an average loss of 46 mm of the plough layer was recorded in the control treatment, while in treatment with ploughing and sowing up and down the slope average annual soil loss was 10 mm. According to the results of this study no-tillage and tillage across the slope are recommended as tillage which preserves soil for the next generations in agro-ecological conditions of continental Croatia.     

兴宁县石马河流域土壤侵蚀类型

本文通过定点观测研究,根据侵蚀力类型与地貌形态,将该地土壤侵蚀划分为:面状侵蚀、沟状侵蚀和崩岗侵蚀。一、面状侵蚀为:由雨滴打击地面、紊动地面径流产生的击溅侵蚀。由于地形和植物等的影响。片蚀实以细沟状侵蚀为主,并通过水量平衡方程、植被和产沙关系,对径流小区水量平衡,植被对片蚀的影响,小区产流、产沙状况作了探讨。二、沟状侵蚀为坡面和崩岗壁面集流作用的结果。三、流水和重力共同作用产生崩岗侵蚀。本文对崩岗侵蚀中面状流水作用区,重力-流水作用区,流水搬运-沉积区的发育过程,以及泥沙冲淤变化作了分析论述。