紫花苜蓿MsHSP17.7基因的克隆及功能分析

热激蛋白是一类普遍参与抗逆的保护性蛋白,在植物生长发育及逆境调控中起重要作用。为了解紫花苜蓿(Medicago sativaL.)热激蛋白基因特性及功能,本研究通过同源克隆法获得热激蛋白基因MsHSP17.7,该基因包含477bp开放阅读框,编码158个氨基酸,蛋白分子量为17.67kDa。序列比对发现MsHSP17.7与截形苜蓿(Medicago truncatula)和豌豆(Pisum sativum)中的2个小分子热激蛋白同源性较高,相似度分别是93.38%,83.13%。组织差异性表达显示,MsHSP17.7在茎中表达最多,叶和花次之,在根中最少;实时定量PCR分析显示,MsHSP17.7受高温、高盐诱导表达,在过氧化诱导下表达量变化不明显。对T3代转基因拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)实时定量PCR分析显示,该基因在高盐和过氧化胁迫下均能大量表达,结果表明MsHSP17.7基因可能参与了高盐与过氧化逆境下的胁迫应激调控。     

种子附属物及贮藏方式对4种野生灌木种子萌发和生活力的影响

以采于新疆青河县的木贼麻黄(Ephedra equisetina)和达坂城柴窝堡的木蓼(Atraphaxis frutescens)、戈壁藜(Ilj inia regelii)和木本猪毛菜(Salsola arbuscula)种子为研究对象,去除种子附属物作对照,对成熟鲜种子和短期野外土壤中贮藏和室内干贮藏后种子的生活力和萌发进行了研究,以研究种子附属物及贮藏方式对种子萌发及生活力保持的作用.结果 表明:木贼麻黄、戈壁藜和木本猪毛菜成熟鲜种子在各变温下的萌发率均接近100％,木蓼在4个温度下萌发率均较低,大部分种子处于休眠状态.鲜种子的附属物抑制木贼麻黄种子萌发,促进木蓼种子的萌发.短期贮藏后,附属物不利于木贼麻黄以及野外贮藏木蓼种子生活力的保持,有利于野外贮藏的戈壁藜种子生活力的保持.附属物抑制贮藏后木蓼种子的萌发,对木贼麻黄、戈壁藜贮藏后种子及木本猪毛菜鲜种子的萌发均无影响,木本猪毛菜无论有无附属物,贮藏后种子均失去生活力.在植被恢复播种和贮藏中,可以考虑去除木贼麻黄的种子附属物,保留木蓼和戈壁藜种子的附属物,木本猪毛菜种子不宜贮藏至第2年.     

紫花地丁二型性种子的萌发特性及其生态意义

紫花地丁(Viola philippica)具有开放花(CH)和闭锁花(CL)形成的二型性种子。在对紫花地丁CH种子和CL种子形态观测的基础上,比较了这两种类型种子在不同温度、光照以及贮藏时间下的萌发特性。结果表明,1)CH种子长、宽以及千粒重显著大于CL种子(P0.05)。2)CH种子和CL种子最适萌发温度均为20℃,萌发率均在95%以上,在10℃条件下均不萌发,但在高温(30℃)条件下CL种子的萌发率显著高于CH种子(P0.05),其它温度下,两者萌发率均无显著差异(P0.05)。3)CH种子对光照条件敏感,黑暗条件对其萌发具有极显著的抑制作用(P0.01),而CL种子在12h光照和全黑暗条件下萌发差异不显著(P0.05)。4)CH种子贮藏210d后,萌发率显著降低(P0.05),而CL种子则在贮藏510d后萌发率才显著下降(P0.05)。CH种子于春季成熟后即可迅速萌发,CL种子一部分于之后的季节萌发,另一部分成为短暂土壤种子库于次年春季萌发。紫花地丁通过二型性种子更好地适应时空异质性环境,提高了其适合度。     

青藏高原东缘15种藜科和蓼科植物种子萌发特性

以青藏高原东缘15种藜科和蓼科植物种子为对象,在100%全自然光照和3%自然光强的人工遮荫条件下统计了植物种子的萌发率和相对光萌发率,分析了此15种植物种子在两种光照水平下的萌发率差异以及相对光萌发率与种子大小的关系。结果显示,各物种种子萌发对光照的响应没有一致性的规律,但相关分析结果表明,1)整体上,随着种子大小的增加,萌发对光照的依赖性逐渐降低(P<0.05); 2)不同生活型植物种子萌发对光照的依赖程度不同,即一年生植物种子萌发对光照敏感且随着种子大小的增加萌发对光的依赖性降低(P<0.001),而多年生植物种子萌发不依赖于光照(P>0.05)。证明种子大小和生活型共同影响着种子萌发对光照的响应。     

光照对陕北退耕地主要植物种子萌发的影响

种子萌发过程中对光的感应能够保障种子在合适的条件萌发、出苗,因而光照的有无会对某些物种种子萌发产生影响。本研究以陕北黄土丘陵沟壑区退耕区10种主要植物种子作为研究对象,通过室内萌发法,在全光照与全黑暗两种条件下对种子萌发特征进行分析。结果表明,10种典型植物大部分种子萌发迅速,光照条件下在4 d内有7种植物种子萌发达到T_(50)(萌发种子数达最终发芽种子总数的50%),达到T_(50)所用时间最长的也只需9 d;试验物种中有7种光照条件下达T_(90)所用时间较少,且光照条件下不同物种的发芽指数差异显著(P 0.05);光照条件下种子萌发率显著大于黑暗条件下的有香青兰(Dracocephalum moldavica)、铁杆蒿(Artemisia sacrorum)、益母草(Leonurus artemisia)、菊叶委陵菜(Potentilla tanacetifolia)和败酱(Patrinia scabiosaefolia)。只有狗尾草(Setaria viridis)萌发率在黑暗条件下显著大于光照条件。其余植物种子萌发率在两种条件下差异不显著(P 0.05)。综上所述,光照是影响陕北退耕地植物种子萌发的重要因素,黑暗对研究中多数物种种子萌发具有抑制作用。因而,侵蚀淤埋遮光是植物更新的潜在限制因素。     

光照对糯扎渡自然保护区27种路边植物种子萌发的影响

以糯扎渡自然保护区27种路边植物种子为研究对象，在光/暗12 h/12 h、24 h黑暗2个光照条件下进行萌发试验，研究分析27种植物种子在两种光照条件下的萌发差异以及相对光萌发率、相对光萌发开始时间与种子大小的关系。结果表明，1)从萌发率来看，有12个物种种子萌发对光依赖性较强，15个物种种子萌发对光不敏感；光有利于种子萌发开始时间显著提前的物种有2种，光显著推迟种子萌发开始时间的物种有9种(P<0.05)，光照条件对萌发开始时间无影响的物种有16种。2)相关性分析显示，整体上小种子的萌发率对光的依赖性更强，光能促进小种子提前开始萌发；生活型为灌木、果实类型为蒴果的植物随着种子大小增加萌发率对光的依赖性均显著降低，而生活型为草本、果实类型为瘦果、荚果、浆果的植物种子萌发率对光的需求与种子大小无关；光能促进草本植物、果实类型为瘦果植物小种子提前开始萌发，对生活型为灌木、果实类型为蒴果、浆果和荚果植物种子的萌发开始时间没有影响。3)光照条件对生活型为草本，果实类型为瘦果、蒴果和坚果的植物种子平均萌发率均有显著影响，需光性更强。综上表明，种子大小、生活型、果实类型均能不同程度地影响种...     

植物调节萌发时间和萌发地点的机制简

 种子萌发是植物生活史中的关键过渡阶段（从种子到幼苗），它决定着植物萌发后所面临的生存环境和自然选择压力。所以，选择合适的萌发时间和萌发地点将会对植物的存活、竞争以及繁殖产生重要意义。温度、土壤湿度、火灾以及光周期是影响植物种子萌发季节的最重要的环境因子。这些因子能够直接调节种子萌发季节或者通过影响种子的休眠状态进而调节种子的萌发季节，确保种子萌发发生在最有利于幼苗建植的季节。光（包括光通量和光谱特征）、日温幅以及硝酸盐是调节种子萌发地点的环境因子。这些因子能够将萌发限制在土壤表面以及植被斑块中，这有利于植物的出苗和幼苗建植。脱落酸（ＡＢＡ）和赤霉素（ＧＡ）是影响种子休眠和萌发的２种最主要的激素。ＡＢＡ 的作用是诱导休眠，抑制萌发，ＧＡ 的作用是去除休眠，促进萌发。在分子水平上，环境因子通过调节控制ＡＢＡ 和ＧＡ 合成、分解以及信号传导的基因的表达来控制植物种子的萌发。     

基于双向电泳结合质谱分析燕麦种子萌发过程蛋白的变化

为分析燕麦(Avena sativa L.)种子蛋白质在萌发过程中的变化,探求燕麦种子吸胀萌发的机理。采用双向电泳结合基质辅助激光解析飞行时间质谱的方法对燕麦品种白燕2号种子吸涨萌发0 h和25 h的蛋白质进行了分离和鉴定。结果表明:燕麦种子蛋白在吸水萌发25 h后18个蛋白点的表达发生了显著变化;这些蛋白质点经质谱分析并搜索NCBI数据库,有10个蛋白点得到明确鉴定,其中7个蛋白质点表达量在燕麦种子萌发后下降,3个表达量增加。差异表达的蛋白质包括12s球蛋白、种子贮藏球蛋白和醇溶燕麦蛋白-3等蛋白。这些蛋白表达量的变化与燕麦种子萌发进程有关,为进一步从蛋白质水平来探索燕麦种子萌发机理提供了理论依据。     

紫花苜蓿种子耐贮藏性综合评价及关键指标筛选

为探讨紫花苜蓿(Medicago sativa L.)种子耐贮藏性综合评价方法与关键指标,本研究以36个品种紫花苜蓿种子为材料,采用高温高湿人工老化法模拟种子贮藏,测定了老化0 h(对照组)和60 h(处理组)的发芽势、发芽率、苗长、根长等10个种子萌发与幼苗生长指标变化。采用综合耐贮藏系数、主成分分析、隶属函数分析、系统聚类分析等方法进行综合评价,建立逐步回归分析数学模型。结果表明,种子萌发与幼苗生长指标均呈下降趋势,但对老化处理表现出不同程度响应差异。系统聚类分析将紫花苜蓿种子耐贮藏性划分为强、中、弱和极弱4个等级,其中,‘三得利’和‘公农1号’种子分别属于强耐贮藏性和极弱耐贮藏性等级。根据逐步回归分析模型,发芽势和苗长可作为种子耐贮藏性评价的关键指标。本研究为紫花苜蓿强耐贮藏性种质筛选、关键候选基因挖掘及功能研究奠定理论基础,也为强耐贮藏性新种质创制与利用提供优异亲本材料。     

圈养条件下东北松鼠对植物种子进食与贮藏的选择

20015年秋季，在哈尔滨针对圈养条件下的枣北松鼠对松子、核桃、橡子、玉米和瓜子等9种植物种子的进食和贮藏开展了研究。结果表明，东北松鼠对各种植物种子的进食选择和贮藏选择具有很大的差异性；松鼠的饥饿状况、食物的适口性、营养成分、可保存性都会影响松鼠对种子的进食和贮藏，特别是进食所需时间和贮藏所需时间是影响到其进食选择和贮藏选择的主要因素。松鼠对各种植物种子进食与贮藏的选择体现了其高效合理的觅食策略。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.