Performance evaluation and calibration of soil water content and potential sensors for agricultural soils in eastern Colorado

This study evaluated the performance of three soil water content sensors (CS616/625, Campbell Scientific, Inc., Logan, UT; TDT, Acclima, Inc., Meridian, ID; 5TE, Decagon Devices, Inc., Pullman, WA) and a soil water potential sensor (Watermark 200SS, Irrometer Company, Inc., Riverside, CA) in laboratory and field conditions. Soil water content/potential values measured by the sensors were compared with corresponding volumetric water content (θ_v, m³ m⁻³) values derived from gravimetric samples, ranging approximately from the permanent wilting point (PWP) to field capacity (FC) volumetric water contents. Under laboratory and field conditions, the factory-based calibrations of θ_v did not consistently achieve the required accuracy for any sensor in the sandy clay loam, loamy sand, and clay loam soils of eastern Colorado. Salt (calcium chloride dihydrate) added to the soils in the laboratory caused the CS616, TDT, and 5TE sensors to experience errors in their volumetric water content readings with increased bulk soil electrical conductivity (EC; dS m⁻¹). Results from field tests in sandy clay loam and loamy sand soils indicated that a linear calibration (equations provided) for the TDT, CS616 and 5TE sensors (and a logarithmic calibration for the Watermark sensors) could reduce the errors of the factory calibration of θ_v to less than 0.02 ± 0.035 m³ m⁻³. Furthermore, the performance evaluation tests confirmed that each individual sensor needed a unique calibration equation for every soil type and location in the field. In addition, the calibrated van Genuchten (1980) equation was as accurate as the calibrated logarithmic equation and can be used to convert soil water potential (kPa) to volumetric soil water content (m³ m⁻³). Finally, analysis of the θ_v field data indicated that the CS616, 5TE and Watermark sensor readings were influenced by diurnal fluctuations in soil temperature, while the TDT was not influenced. Therefore, it is recommended that the soil temperature be considered in the calibration process of the CS616, 5TE, and Watermark sensors. Further research will be aimed towards determining the need of sensor calibration for every agricultural season.     

Simulation of soil water dynamics under subsurface drip irrigation from line sources

A mathematical model which describes water flow under subsurface drip lines taking into account root water uptake, evaporation of soil water from the soil surface and hysteresis in the soil water characteristic curve θ(H) is presented. The model performance in simulating soil water dynamics was evaluated by comparing the predicted soil water content values with both those of Hydrus 2D model and those of an analytical solution for a buried single strip source. Soil water distribution patterns for three soils (loamy sand, silt, silty clay loam) and two discharge rates (2 and 4 l m⁻¹ h⁻¹) at four different times are presented. The numerical results showed that the soil wetting pattern mainly depends on soil hydraulic properties; that at a time equal to irrigation duration decreasing the discharge rate of the line sources but maintaining the applied irrigation depth, the vertical and horizontal components of the wetting front were increased; that at a time equal to the total simulation time the discharge rate has no effect on the actual transpiration and actual soil evaporation and a small effect on deep percolation. Also the numerical results showed that when the soil evaporation is neglected the soil water is more easily taken up by the plant roots.     

测量土壤水分特征曲线的复合传感器设

为了直接获取土壤水特征曲线,在一种商品化微型张力计的基础上,设计了一种同步测量土壤水吸力与容积含水率的复合传感器.将张力计中的一段金属保护套管作为天线,利用其辐射阻抗随着土壤含水率变化的规律来测量土壤容积含水率.在实验室环境下,利用3种不同质地土样(砂土、砂壤土、粘壤土)对复合传感器进行了试验,并与经典土壤水特征曲线测量方法(压力锅法结合砂箱法)获得的数据进行了比较.结果表明,复合传感器在3种土壤样品上获得的水分特征曲线的均方根误差均小于0.05,与标准方法所获得的结果具有较好的一致性.     

Dripper Discharge Rates and the Hydraulic Properties of the Soil

The hydraulic properties of soils areneeded in predicting runoff and erosion,irrigation design and general transportphenomena in the soil. Theoretical toolshave been developed to estimate them frommeasurements of water distribution near apoint source assuming stable homogeneousand isotropic soils. Soil wetting rate andits interaction with soil texture was notconsidered in these analyses even thoughreports indicated that a high wetting ratedisintegrates soil's aggregates and isassociated with deterioration of soilstructure and reduction of the hydraulicconductivity (HC) and infiltration rates(IR) especially in clay soils. Objectiveswere to: (i) show how IR of a soil, wettedfrom a point source, are affected by thedischarge rate of the dripper. (ii)identify the mechanisms responsible forthis reduction and (iii) investigate theeffect of emitter's discharge on theresultant HC of sand,loam and clay. Werelated the reduction of IR under highemitter discharge to the breakdown of soilaggregates by fast wetting anddeterioration of the hydraulic propertiesof soils, (the pedological mechanism,).Results show that relative to the idealstable soil the steady IR decreased withan increase in the discharge rate of thedripper. The resultant saturated HC(K_s) was, erroneously, negative forclay and loamy soils but not for sand.When determining hydraulic properties ofsoils with a point source, low dischargesshould produce better results especiallyin soils with medium to high clay content.     

Measured and simulated soil wetting patterns under porous clay pipe sub-surface irrigation

Sub-surface irrigation with porous clay pipe can be an efficient, water saving method of irrigation for many less developed arid and semi-arid regions. Maximizing the efficiency of clay pipe irrigation requires guidelines and criteria for system design and operation. In this study, experimental and simulated (with HYDRUS (2D/3D)) soil wetting patterns were investigated for sub-surface pipe systems operating at different water pressures. Predictions of the soil water content made with HYDRUS were found to be in good agreement (R² = 0.98) with the observed data. Additional simulations with HYDRUS were used to study the effects of various design parameters on soil wetting. Increasing the system pressure increased the size of the wetted zone. The installation depth affects the recommended lateral spacing as well as the amount of evaporative water loss. For a given water application, the potential rate of surface evaporation affected the shape of the wetted region only minimally. Soil texture, due to its connection to soil hydraulic conductivity and water retention, has a larger impact on the wetting geometry. In general, greater horizontal spreading occurs in fine texture soils, or in the case of layered soils, in the finer textured layers.     

分形在土壤空间变异性评价中的应用研究

针对土壤空间变异性问题,研究了分维数和土壤空间变异性的关系。应用Green-Ampt入渗模型模拟出十种土壤的下渗湿峰深度值,它们的大小依次是:壤质砂土、沙壤土、沙质黏壤土、壤土、粉砂壤土、砂质壤土、黏质壤土、粉砂黏壤土、黏土、粉砂黏土,然后计算出十种土壤随机组合构成的100种土壤剖面的湿峰形状分维数,用这些分维数来描述土壤空间变异性。同时用反距离加权法和相邻两参数平方均值法算出土壤区域属性值,并与分维数进行比较,再通过对土壤空间变异性(用土壤饱和水力传导度来表示)的统计分析和分维数关系的分析,得出湿峰的分形维数与KS具有较明显的分带关系,而且这种关系在实际流域中会更明显。总的来说,土壤空间变异性越大,分形维数df越大。因此可以看出,用分形来评价土壤空间变异性是可行的,并取得了不错的效果。     

保水剂对土壤持水性影响及在不同土壤中效果比较

为分析保水剂对土壤持水性的影响以及对不同土壤持水效果进行比较,按保水剂质量占土壤质量百分比设计0.10%、0.30%、0.50%、1.00%、以及对照(土壤不加保水剂)5个处理进行室内试验。结果表明:保水剂可提高土壤的持水性,土壤保水率随保水剂用量增加而增大,3种土壤施用比例为0.10%~1.00%的保水剂,经过7h恒温蒸发后土壤平均保水率较对照提高103%~187%。但是,当保水剂达到一定用量后,保水率增幅效果不显著。综合3种土壤平均保水率,保水剂比例为0.10%时,恒温蒸发7h后与对照差异显著,当比例增大至0.30%时,虽然与对照相比存在显著差异,但与比例为0.10%时相比无显著差异,当比例逐渐增大至0.50%和1.00%时,与比例为0.30%时相比,相互间也无显著差异。保水剂对提高不同土壤持水性方面的功效存在差异,且差异的大小与水分蒸发时间及保水剂用量有关。土壤水分蒸发初期(1~2h),不同保水剂用量,3种土壤的保水率无明显差异;土壤水分蒸发后期(2h后),保水剂对提高不同土壤持水效果的差异逐渐显现,总体上在黏粒含量较低的壤沙土中的应用效果要好于黏粒含量较高的沙黏壤土和壤土。3种土壤施用比例为0.10%~1.00%,经过7h恒温蒸发后保水率较对照提高分别为:壤沙土293.08%~591.29%,沙黏壤土181.85%~249.78%,壤土29.53%~73.03%。针对本试验所测试的壤沙土、沙黏壤土和壤土3种土壤,保水剂更适宜在黏粒含量较低的壤沙土中使用,用量以保水剂占土壤质量百分比为0.10%为宜。     

Osmotic adjustment of sugar beets in response to soil salinity and its influence on stomatal conductance,growth and yield

Sugar beets were grown in tanks filled with loam and clay, and were irrigated with waters of three different levels of salinity. Osmotic adjustment was determined by analyzing the pressure-volume curves at three growth stages. Sugar beets showed osmotic adjustment in two ways: with their phenological development and towards salinity. Owing to the latter adjustment sugar beets are able to maintain the turgor potential at the same value for lower values of the leaf water potential, to maintain stomatal conductance and photosynthesis and finally their production under severe water stress.Salinity affected the pre-dawn leaf water potential, stomatal conductance and evapotranspiration on both soils, but leaf area and yield only on loam.Soil texture affected stomatal conductance, evapotranspiration, leaf area and yield. As the latter was about 35% lower on clay, whereas the evapotranspiration decreased 10 to 15%, the water use efficiency was about 25% lower on clay compared with loam.     

季节性冻融期不同潜水位埋深下土壤蒸发规律模拟研究

为了揭示季节性冻融期不同潜水位埋深和土壤质地对土壤蒸发的影响,通过连续2个冻融期的蒸渗计土壤剖面含水率和土壤温度的监测,利用水热耦合运移模型模拟研究了4种不同潜水位埋深(0.5、1.0、1.5、2.0 m)下砂壤土和壤砂土的土壤蒸发规律。结果表明:不稳定冻结阶段和消融解冻阶段地表土壤均出现昼融夜冻的特征,土壤液态水分较多,砂壤土和壤砂土蒸发量分别占整个冻融期的91.7%和81.8%以上。稳定冻结阶段的土壤蒸发量随着潜水位埋深的增加而增大,但小于0.31 mm。潜水位埋深为0.5 m时冻融期土壤蒸发量最大,砂壤土和壤砂土分别为47.28 mm和25.60 mm,随着潜水位埋深的增加,冻融期土壤蒸发量呈指数型减少,土壤颗粒直径相对较大的壤砂土土壤蒸发量随潜水位埋深的增加而衰减的幅度较为明显。该研究可为地下水浅埋区土壤盐渍化的防治和地下水资源量的科学评价提供依据。     

Effects of fixed partial root-zone drying irrigation and soil texture on water and solute dynamics in calcareous soils and corn yield

Water dynamics and salt distribution in the soil were studied under Fixed Partial Root zone Drying irrigation (FPRD) conditions in corn fields in Northern Greece. FPRD irrigation technique was applied without deficit treatment in two calcareous soils, a sandy clay loam and a sandy loam. Soil water content was recorded in the vertical profile of 0.6 m with the use of capacitance sensors in the row and interrow positions of plants. Salt built-up was monitored to the depth of the root zone, bi-weekly, by measuring electrical conductivity (EC_e) and the concentrations of soluble cations Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺, Na⁺ and K⁺ of the saturation extract on irrigated and non irrigated interrow positions. Soil moisture distribution and salt built-up in soil were used to evaluate the potentials and constraints of FPRD efficiency to sustain plant growth and crop production as a low cost drip irrigation technique. The results indicated that FPRD application on both soils was capable of supplying sufficient amounts of water on plant row. Soil analyses showed that salts accumulated to high levels in the soil surface and decreased in depth at the non irrigated interrow positions. Spatial and temporal variability of salt movement and distribution in the soil profile of 0.6 m were ascribed to soil textural differences. The development and yield of corn plants for both soils reached the usual standards for the area with a minor decrease in the sandy loam soil.     

土壤斥水性与有机质质量分数的变化关系研究

土壤有机质质量分数是影响土壤斥水性的最主要因素之一,为研究二者之间的关系,选用以色列3类不同质地斥水性土壤为对象,分别在田间和实验室测定土壤斥水性和有机质质量分数,并绘制土壤斥水性和有机质质量分数的等值线图和关系图。结果表明,对于粘性土壤和沙质土壤,土壤斥水性随有机质质量分数成幂指数关系,但对于壤土,二者之间没有非常明显的线性关系。研究结果可为分析不同土壤的斥水性影响因素和土壤改良提供理论依据。     

Effects of irrigation strategies and soils on field grown potatoes: Yield and water productivity

Yield and water productivity of potatoes grown in 4.32 m² lysimeters were measured in coarse sand, loamy sand, and sandy loam and imposed to full (FI), deficit (DI), and partial root-zone drying (PRD) irrigation strategies. PRD and DI as water-saving irrigation treatments received 65% of FI after tuber bulking and lasted for 6 weeks until final harvest. Analysis across the soil textures showed that fresh yields were not significant between the irrigation treatments. However, the same analysis across the irrigation treatments revealed that the effect of soil texture was significant on the fresh yield and loamy sand produced significantly higher fresh yield than the other two soils, probably because of higher leaf area index, higher photosynthesis rates, and “stay-green” effect late in the growing season. More analysis showed that there was a significant interaction between the irrigation treatments and soil textures that the highest fresh yield was obtained under FI in loamy sand. Furthermore, analysis across the soil textures showed that water productivities, WP (kg ha⁻¹ fresh tuber yield mm⁻¹ ET) were not significantly different between the irrigation treatments. However, across the irrigation treatments, the soil textures were significantly different. This showed that the interaction between irrigation treatments and soil textures was significant that the highest significant WP was obtained under DI in sandy loam. While PRD and DI treatments increased WP by, respectively, 11 and 5% in coarse sand and 28 and 36% in sandy loam relative to FI, they decreased WP in loamy sand by 15 and 13%. The reduced WP in loamy sand was due to nearly 28% fresh tuber yield loss in PRD and DI relative to FI even though ET was reduced by 9 and 11% in these irrigation treatments. This study showed that different soils will affect water-saving irrigation strategies that are worth knowing for suitable agricultural water management. So, under non-limited water resources conditions, loamy sand produces the highest yield under full irrigation but water-saving irrigations (PRD and DI) are not recommended due to considerable loss (28%) in yield. However, under restricted water resources, it is recommended to apply water-saving irrigations in sandy loam and coarse sand to achieve the highest water productivity.     

土壤质地对机采棉土壤水热状况及生长发育影响研究

为了进一步明确玛纳斯河流域土壤质地对机采棉水热状况及生长发育的影响,通过测坑试验,对3种不同土壤质地(壤土、砂土、黏土)下的土壤温度、土壤含水率、机采棉、株高、叶面积及产量进行了对比分析。结果表明,不同土壤质地条件下地温日变化及不同时间段温度增量表现为:砂土黏土壤土;不同土壤质地条件下0~60 cm和0~100 cm土层土壤质量含水率大小顺序为:黏土壤土砂土;不同土壤质地下机采棉的生长及产量均表现为壤土黏土砂土。研究认为壤土质地种植机采棉,提高了其生育前期的土壤温度,有效保持了土壤水分,有利于其生长发育。因此,为了提高水分利用效率及产量,建议玛纳斯河流域应增加壤土质地种植机采棉的比例。     

Grouping water storage properties of Indian soils for soil water balance model applications

Soil water balance models are useful tools of agricultural and water resources planning and management. Data of water storage limits of soil profiles, field capacity (FC) and permanent wilting point (PWP), are essential for running soil water balance models. A procedure for estimating these parameters for Indian soils is presented. The values of FC and PWP for each textural class are estimated independently for alluvial, black and red soils. The estimated parameters are tested by running a soil water balance model for a case study area. The use of the model in saving irrigation water is also demonstrated. The estimated parameters of Indian soils are also compared with corresponding values of US soils. The comparisons are favourable for FC for all soil texture groups, and for PWP for coarse to medium and medium texture groups. Differences in PWP between US and Indian soils increase at finer soil textures as a result of differences in clay fraction, mineralogy, and organic matter content.     

Irrigation planning in cotton through simulation modeling

Experiments were undertaken at CCS Haryana Agricultural University Farm, Sirsa (India) to estimate the optimum irrigation schedule for cotton resulting in minimum percolation losses. The sprinkler line source technique was adopted for creating various irrigation regimes at different crop growth stages. The SWASALT (Simulation of Water And SALT) model after calibration and validation provided water balance components. The wa-ter management response indicators (WMRI's) such as transpiration efficiency E_t/(Irr + P), relative transpiration E_t/E_tp, evapotranspiration efficiency ET/(Irr + P), soil moisture storage change ΔW/W_int (deficit/excess) and percolation loss Perc/(Irr. + P) were evaluated using water balance components as estimated by the simulation study. Under limited water supply conditions, the optimum irrigation depth was found to be 57 mm at crop growth stages with pre-sowing and 1^st irrigation of 120 mm and 80 mm respectively for sandy clay loam underlain by sandy loam soil (Type I). The corresponding values of relative transpiration, transpiration efficiency and evapotranspiration efficiency were 0.65, 0.65 and 0.89 respectively. The crop yield varied linearly with increasing irrigation depth which was evident from increase in relative transpiration with increasing depth of water application. However, increased depth of irrigation resulted in less moisture utilisation from soil storage (20% depletion at 40 mm depth and 4.4% moisture built up at 100 mm depth). The extended simulation study for sandy soil underlain by loamy sand (Type II) indicated that two pre-sowing irrigations each 40 mm and subsequent irrigations of 40 mm at an interval of 20 days depending upon rainfall were optimum. This irrigation scenario resulted in zero percolation loss accompanied by 74% relative transpiration and 14 per cent soil moisture depletion. Received: 20 November 1995     

Comparative evaluation of phosphorus losses from subsurface and naturally drained agricultural fields in the Pike River watershed of Quebec, Canada

Phosphorus (P) is the limiting nutrient responsible for the development of algal blooms in freshwater bodies, adversely impacting the water quality of downstream lakes and rivers. Since agriculture is a major non-point source of P in southern Quebec, this study was carried out to investigate P transport under subsurface and naturally drained agricultural fields with two common soil types (clay loam and sandy loam). Monitoring stations were installed at four sites (A, B, C and D) in the Pike River watershed of southern Quebec. Sites A-B had subsurface drainage whereas sites C-D were naturally drained. In addition, sites A-C had clay loam soils whereas sites B-D had sandy loam soils. Analysis of data acquired over two hydrologic years (2004-2006) revealed that site A discharged 1.8 times more water than site B, 4 times more than site C and 3 times more than site D. The presence of subsurface drainage in sandy loam soils had a significant beneficial effect in minimizing surface runoff and total phosphorus (TP) losses from the field, but the contrary was observed in clay loam soils. This was attributed to the finding that P speciation as particulate phosphorus (PP) and dissolved phosphorus (DP) remained relatively independent of the hydrologic transport pathway, and was a strong function of soil texture. While 80% of TP occurred as PP at both clay loam sites, only 20% occurred as PP at both sandy loam sites. Moreover, P transport pathways in artificially drained soils were greatly influenced by the prevailing preferential and macropore flow conditions.     

围垦年限和土壤容重对海涂土壤水分运动参数的影响

为探讨围垦年限和土壤容重双因素对海涂土壤水分运动参数的影响,在室内试验的基础上结合理论计算,对海涂4个年限围垦区土壤2个不同容重下土壤导水率、水分特征曲线和扩散率的变化进行了研究。结果表明:围垦年限对土壤颗粒组成、结构及钠盐含量等影响显著,土壤饱和导水率随围垦年限的增长而减小;持水能力、土壤水分扩散率随围垦年限的增长而增大。土壤饱和导水率、吸渗率、土壤水分扩散率及相同土壤吸力下的含水率均随容重的增大而减小,随着围垦年限的增长,土壤容重对水分运动参数的影响更明显。     

3种土壤灌溉后通气小白菜的水分及养分利用特性

选取3种河南省典型土壤(郑州黏土、洛阳粉壤土和驻马店砂壤土),以小白菜为供试作物,采用地下滴灌供水,设置常规灌溉为对照组(CK)、灌溉后通气(MV)为试验组开展盆栽试验,研究灌溉后通气对小白菜水分和养分利用的影响.结果表明,与CK相比,处理MV显著地提高了3种土壤小白菜根系活力、根干质量和净光合速率.处理MV显著提高了小白菜蒸腾速率,其中,黏土、粉壤土的分别提高了20.61%和15.98%.黏土在处理MV时,小白菜产量和水分利用效率分别提高了38.08%和52.70%;小白菜氮、磷、钾吸收效率分别增大了61.65%,66.54%,104.83%.粉壤土在处理MV时,小白菜磷、钾吸收效率分别增大了50.60%,73.65%.砂壤土在处理MV时,小白菜磷、钾吸收效率分别增大了40.84%,26.19%.以上差异均具有统计学意义(P<0.05).综上,黏土灌溉后通气处理对小白菜水分、养分利用及产量的提高效果最为显著.     

基于水稳定同位素技术的生物炭对土壤持水性影响分析

以不同生物炭配比的土壤样品为研究对象,通过低温真空抽提和稳定同位素光谱技术,进行不同抽提时间下的土壤水稳定同位素分析,采用绘制土壤抽提曲线和计算抽提贡献率的方法,探讨生物炭对土壤持水性的影响。结果表明,低温真空抽提下,砂土的最短抽提时间(T_(min))为30 min,壤土为45 min,粘土为60 min。土壤持水性的变化会导致抽提过程中水稳定同位素值、T_(min)和抽提贡献率发生变化,通过分析不同生物炭配比下土壤的T_(min)、水稳定同位素分馏情况以及计算贡献率可得出,生物炭显著影响砂土持水性,且与生物炭添加量呈线性正相关;而对壤土和粘土的持水性有一定影响,但过量或过少则不明显,壤土对生物炭更为敏感。     

Estimating in situ soil–water retention and field water capacity in two contrasting soil textures

A priori knowledge of the in situ soil field water capacity (FWC) and the soil-water retention curve for soils is important for the effective irrigation management and scheduling of many crops. The primary objective of this study was to estimate the in situ FWC using the soil-water retention curve developed from volumetric water content (θ), and water potential (ψ) data collected in the field by means of soil moisture sensors in two contrasting-textured soils. The two study soils were Lihen sandy loam and Savage clay loam. Six metal frames 117 cm × 117 cm × 30 cm high were inserted into the soil to a depth of 5–10 cm at approximately 40 m intervals on a 200 m transect. Two Time Domain Reflectrometry (TDR) sensors were installed in the center of the frame and two Watermark (WM) sensors were installed in the SW corner at 15 and 30 cm depths to continuously monitor soil θ and ψ, respectively. A neutron probe (NP) access tube was installed in the NE corner of each frame to measure soil θ used for TDR calibration. The upper 50–60 cm of soil inside each frame was saturated with intermittent application of approximately 18–20 cm of water. Frames were then covered with plastic tarps. The Campbell and Gardner equations best fit the soil–water retention curves for sandy loam and clay loam soils, respectively. Based on the relationship between soil ψ and elapsed time following cessation of infiltration, we calculated that the field capacity time (t _FWC) were reached at approximately 50 and 450 h, respectively, for sandy loam and clay loam soils. Soil-water retention curves showed that θ values at FWC (θ _FWC) were approximately 0.228 and 0.344 m³ m⁻³, respectively, for sandy loam and clay loam soils. The estimated θ _FWC values were within the range of the measured θ _FWC values from the NP and gravimetric methods. The TDR and WM sensors provided accurate in situ soil–water retention data from simultaneous soil θ and ψ measurements that can be used in soil-water processes, irrigation scheduling, modeling and chemical transport.