Can heat-pulse sap flow measurements be used as continuous water stress indicators of citrus trees?

Transpiration of well-watered and regulated deficit irrigated (RDI) citrus trees was determined by sap flow (SF) measurements using the compensation heat-pulse method. Its potential for detection of plant water stress was evaluated in comparison with measurements of midday stem water potential (ψ_stem). The study was carried out during 2 years in two commercial groves of Clementina de Nules (CN) and Navel Lane Late (NLL). SF measurements were taken in two trees per treatment instrumented with two identical gauges per tree in NLL and two different types of gauges (type 1 shorter than type 2) in CN. The absolute SF values underestimated the tree water use. Averaged over the entire period of water restrictions, a reduction of about 50 % in water application in the RDI trees of both species decreased tree transpiration compared to the control trees only by a 15 %. Both the nocturnal-to-diurnal SF ratio and the relative transpiration were in good agreement with differences in ψ_stem. Overall, results suggest that SF measurements should be preferentially used in relative terms. Sap flow sensors are useful for detecting plant water stress, but they also highlight some of the problems for accurately measuring transpiration.     

Response of Clementina de Nules citrus trees to summer deficit irrigation. Yield components and fruit composition

The effects of mid-summer regulated deficit irrigation (RDI) treatments were investigated on Clementina de Nules citrus trees over three seasons. Water restrictions applied from July, once the June physiological fruit drop had finished, until mid September were compared with a Control treatment irrigated during all the season to match full crop evapotranspiration (ET_c). Two degrees of water restrictions were imposed based on previous results also obtained in Clementina de Nules trees ( [Ginestar and Castel, 1996] and [González-Altozano and Castel, 1999]). During the RDI period, deficit irrigation was applied based on given reductions over the ET_c, but also taking into account threshold values of midday stem water potential (Ψ_s) of −1.3 to −1.5 MPa for RDI-1 and of −1.5 to −1.7 MPa for RDI-2. Results showed that water savings achieved in the RDI-2 treatment impaired yield by reducing fruit size. On the contrary, the RDI-1 strategy allowed for 20% water savings, with a reduction in tree growth but without any significant reduction in yield, fruit size nor in the economic return when irrigation was resumed to normal dose about three months before harvest. Water use efficiency (WUE) in the RDI trees was similar or even higher than in Control trees. RDI improved fruit quality increasing total soluble solids (TSS) and titratable acidity (TA). In conclusion, we suggest that the RDI-1 strategy here evaluated can be applied in commercial orchards not only in case of water scarcity, but also as a tool to control vegetative growth improving fruit composition and reducing costs associated with the crop management.     

基于红外热成像树上板栗机器识别研究

针对普通视觉系统无法分类识别的特点,将红外热成像技术引入到树上板栗的机器识别检测当中,建立了果园树上板栗红外热成像系统。记录了白天树上板栗果实与冠层温度变化情况,发现下午2:00~4:00之间,二者温度差异最为显著,最大温差可达3℃。研究了正常板栗果、坏死果以及空心果的红外辐射差异,发现坏死果表面温度最高,正常果次之,空心果温度最低。最后对获取的热图像进行温度校正、阈值分割、特征提取、目标标识。结果表明,树上板栗的有效识别率在85%以上。     

Infrared canopy temperature of early-ripening peach trees under postharvest deficit irrigation

Canopy temperature measurements with infrared thermometry have been extensively studied as a means of assessing plant water status for field and row crops but not for fruit trees such as peaches. Like in many regions of the world, the lack of water is beginning to impact production of tree fruit such as peaches in the San Joaquin Valley of California. This is an area where irrigation is the only source of water for agricultural crops in the summer growing season. A two-year field study was conducted to assess plant water stress using infrared canopy temperature measurements and to examine its feasibility for managing postharvest deficit irrigation of peach trees. Twelve infrared temperature sensors were installed in a mature peach orchard which received four irrigation treatments: furrow and subsurface drip irrigation with or without postharvest water stress. During the two-year period, measured midday canopy to air temperature differences in the water-stressed postharvest deficit irrigation treatments were in the 5-7 °C range, which were consistently higher than the 1.4-2 °C range found in the non-water-stressed control treatments. A reasonable correlation (R² = 0.67-0.70) was obtained between stem water potential and the canopy to air temperature difference, indicating the possibility of using the canopy temperature to trigger irrigation events. Crop water stress index (CWSI) was estimated and consistently higher CWSI values were found in the deficit irrigation than in the control treatments. Results of yield and fruit quality assessments were consistent with the literature when deficit irrigation was deployed.     

Evaluating water stress in irrigated olives: correlation of soil water status,tree water status,and thermal imagery

Irrigation of olive orchards is challenged to optimize both yields and oil quality. Best management practices for olive irrigation will likely depend on the ability to maintain mild to moderate levels of water stress during at least some parts of the growing season. We examined a number of soil, plant and remote sensing parameters for evaluating water stress in bearing olive (var. Barnea) trees in Israel. The trees were irrigated with five water application treatments (30, 50, 75, 100 and 125% of potential evapotranspiration) and the measurements of soil water content and potential, mid-day stem water potential, and stomatal resistance were taken. Remote thermal images of individual trees were used to alternatively measure average canopy temperature and to calculate the tree’s crop water stress index (CWSI), testing empirical and analytical approaches. A strong non-linear response showing similar trends and behavior was evident in soil and plant water status measurements as well as in the CWSI, with decreasing rates of change at the higher irrigation application levels. No statistically significant difference was found between the analytical and the empirical CWSI, suggesting that the relative simplicity of the analytical method would make it preferable in practical applications.     

Computational water stress indices obtained from thermal image analysis of grapevine canopies

Thermal imaging of crop canopies has been proposed more than a decade ago as a sensitive methodology to determine the water status of different crops. This paper describes the development of a semi-automated and automated methodology using MATLAB? programming techniques to analyse the infrared thermal images taking into consideration the pitfalls pointed out previously in the literature. The proposed method was tested in an irrigation reduction and recovery trial for Chardonnay in the 2010–2011 season and in the 2009–2010 season from seven varieties in field conditions. There was a clear separation (assessed by principal component analysis) between control and recovery compared to stress treatments using leaf area index (LAI), stomatal conductance, stem water potential and indices derived from canopy temperatures measured by infrared imaging. High and significant correlations were found between canopy temperature indices and other measures of water stress obtained in the same vines that were independent of LAI. Furthermore, a fully automated analysis method has been proposed using ancillary weather information obtained from the same locations of infrared thermal images. This paper is a first step towards automation of infrared thermography acquisition and analysis in the field for grapevines and other crops.     

利用无人机影像监测不同生育阶段玉米群体株高的精度差异分析

为明确利用无人机影像监测玉米群体株高的精度及其影响因素,本研究基于无人机搭载光学成像设备构建大田玉米群体数字高程模型（Digital Elevation Model,DEM）,研究不同生育时期下玉米群体株高监测的精度差异。针对3个玉米品种、8个播期处理构建的株高差异化群体,用多旋翼无人机搭载高清RGB相机和多光谱成像设备,采集试验区高清RGB和多光谱影像,获取玉米群体数字高程信息DEM和各处理区植株高度,分析不同品种和播期处理下基于无人机和人工测量株高间的相关关系。试验结果表明,高清RGB相机和多光谱成像设备获取的DEM均能反映玉米群体的高度差异。高清RGB相机的株高监测精度优于多光谱成像设备,但株高监测精度不足,难以反映玉米群体的较小株高差异。不同生育阶段对玉米株高监测精度具有较大影响,生育前期冠层尚未全部覆盖地表或生育后期植株衰老叶片枯黄下垂时,受裸露地表影响,群体株高被严重低估。本研究分析了影响无人机搭载成像设备监测玉米株高精度的因素,可为该方法应用于大田生产提供借鉴意义。     

Scheduling deficit irrigation of citrus trees with maximum daily trunk shrinkage

The feasibility of scheduling deficit irrigation using maximum daily trunk shrinkage (MDS) was evaluated during two consecutive seasons in a citrus orchard planted with mature ‘Clementina de Nules’ trees, in Valencia, Spain. Results showed that MDS in well irrigated trees varied largely according to the environmental conditions (higher correlation was obtained with global radiation), and therefore, the absolute values of MDS cannot be employed as the only variable to schedule irrigation. To avoid the effects of the climatic conditions we scheduled deficit irrigation using the MDS ratio, which is the MDS of any treatment related to the MDS of a control, well irrigated, treatment located in the same plot. We explored the feasibility of scheduling irrigation based on the MDS ratio in a deficit irrigated treatment, where water was applied as necessary, from July until mid October, in order to maintain the MDS values at 125% of that of the control treatment. Despite the large variability observed in the MDS measurements in both years no significant reduction in yield and fruit weight was observed in the deficit irrigated treatment compared with the control, allowing seasonal water saving between 18 and 12%.     

A reexamination of the crop water stress index

Summary Hand-held infrared radiometers, developed during the past decade, have extended the measurement of plant canopy temperatures from individual leaves to entire plant canopies. Canopy temperatures are determined by the water status of the plants and by ambient meteorological conditions. The crop water stress index (CWSI) combines these factors and yields a measure of plant water stress. Two forms of the index have been proposed, an empirical approach as reported by Idso et al. (1981), and a theoretical approach reported by Jackson et al. (1981). Because it is simple and requires only three variables to be measured, the empirical approach has received much attention in the literature. It has, however received some criticism concerning its inability to account for temperature changes due to radiation and windspeed. The theoretical method is more complicated in that it requires these two additional variables to be measured, and the evaluation of an aerodynamic resistance, but it will account for differences in radiation and windspeed. This report reexamines the theoretical approach and proposes a method for estimating an aerodynamic resistance applicable to a plant canopy. A brief history of plant temperature measurements is given and the theoretical basis for the CWSI reviewed.     

基于广角摄影技术的柑橘树冠层叶面积指数检测系统

提出一种基于广角摄像技术的柑橘树叶面积指数快速、简易检测方法。将广角摄像镜头拍摄的柑橘树图像导入计算机,进行灰度化、图像增强、滤波处理与二值化处理,计算出柑橘树冠层的孔隙率,据此推导柑橘树冠层叶面积指数。试验以扫描法检测结果作为真实值,并以加拿大WinSCANOPY型冠层分析仪与本系统作检测效果对比,结果表明在同等试验条件下,利用WinSCANOPY型冠层分析仪检测柑橘树叶面积指数的相对误差变化范围为-30.39%~43.53%,相对误差绝对值的平均值为18.90%,本系统检测的相对误差变化范围为-27.26%~37.06%,相对误差绝对值的平均值为19.91%,满足柑橘树冠层LAI检测试验要求。     

Maximum diurnal trunk shrinkage is a sensitive indicator of plant water, stress in Diospyros kaki (Persimmon) trees

Persimmon tree (Diospyros kaki L.f.) is a deciduous fruit tree included in the so-called group of minor fruit tree species. Worldwide, it is not widely grown but, nowadays, Kaki culture is of some importance in the south-east of Spain because of the high fruit commercial value. Currently, neither it is known about Kaki trees water needs, nor crop responses to the irrigation regime. The objective of the present research was to assess the feasibility of using maximum diurnal trunk shrinkage (MDS) as a plant water stress indicator for Kaki trees. During two drought cycles, in trees under either full or deficit irrigation, the MDS obtained by means of LVDT sensors was compared with a reference indicator of fruit trees water status, the midday stem water potential (Ψ_stem). In addition, stomatal conductance and fruit diameter variations were also followed. As water restrictions began, there was an immediate increase in MDS, in correspondence with a decrease in Ψ_stem. Pooling data from both drought cycles and irrigation regimes, MDS and Ψ_stem were linearly correlated (r² = 0.77***). The magnitude of differences between well watered and deficit irrigated trees was much larger in the case of MDS than for Ψ_stem. However, the tree-to-tree variability of the MDS readings was three times higher than for Ψ_stem; average coefficient of variation of 14% and 38% for Ψ_stem and MDS, respectively. Overall, results reported indicated that MDS is a sensitive indicator of Kaki water status and it can be further used as an irrigation scheduling indicator for optimum irrigation management of this crop. However, the large MDS tree-to-tree variability should be taken into account when selecting the number of trees to monitor within an orchard.     

Distribution of rainfall and soil moisture content in the soil profile under citrus tree canopy and at the dripline

The plant canopy intercepts rain and thus can alter the distribution of water under the canopy as compared to that along the dripline. The effects of a citrus (Citrus sinensis L. Osbeck) tree (25-year-old, Valencia orange) canopy on the distribution of rainfall and soil moisture content within the soil profile either along the dripline (D) or under the canopy near the trunk (inner side; I), and midway between I and Dripline (M) were evaluated, on the east and west sides of trees planted along north-south rows. Results of eleven storm events in 1995 (mean of east and west sides) revealed that the amounts of precipitation at the D, M, and I positions were 97–140, 47–94, and 52–79% of the incident rainfall, respectively. Thus, canopy interception of incident rainfall was quite appreciable. The soil moisture content was greater along the dripline compared to that at the M and I positions, particularly in the deeper (≥60 cm) soil profile. The water flux was significantly greater at the dripline than under the canopy indicating a greater leaching potential of soil-applied fertilizers and other chemicals when placed along the dripline. A substantial reduction in the rainfall and water flux under the canopy as a result of canopy interception suggests that application of fertilizer and chemicals under the canopy could minimize leaching losses. Received: 10 November 1997     

基于SfM的针叶林无人机影像树冠分割算法

利用无人机影像进行森林资源调查具有作业快速便捷、数据分辨率较高、影像细节丰富的特点,可较好地识别单木,获取树木位置、冠幅等信息。但是,厘米级的影像分辨率使基于光谱信息的传统分割算法在提取树冠时出现破碎化现象,产生过分割结果。同时,在非落叶季由于无人机影像难以观测到茂密林冠下层地形,故在地形起伏较大的林区难以实现基于树木冠层高度模型(CHM)的单木分割方法。针对上述问题,结合传统二维图像处理和Sf M三维建模,提出了一种无需高度归一化的无人机影像树冠三维分割提取算法,首先利用Sf M技术从高重叠航片建立三维表面模型,利用高程和图像信息检测初始树木位置,再采取k NN自适应邻域分水岭分割的方式对中心单木进行精确的树冠参数提取。在北京市百花山国家级自然保护区的落叶松林地进行了高分辨率无人机影像实验,采用正射影像目视解译结果和多种基于图像、点云的自动分割算法结果进行验证和评价。结果表明,本文方法对树木总体检出率在91%以上,冠幅提取精度在81%以上,优于传统的全局分水岭方法和其他树冠分割算法。     

棉花冠层温度的变化规律及其用于缺水诊断研究

作物冠层温度是反映作物水分状况的一个良好指标，在研究环境因素对冠层温度影响的基础上，分析了不同土壤水分条件下棉花冠层温度的变化规律。研究表明了冠层温度与细胞液浓度之间存在良好关系，建立的冠层温度与气温差同气象因素和土壤水分的关系可用于判断作物的缺水状况     

Whole-tree water balance and indicators for short-term drought stress in non-bearing ‘Barnea’ olives

Drainage-weighing lysimeters allowed monitoring of water balance components of non-bearing olive (Olea europaea cv Barnea) trees over a 3-month period including short-term events of controlled but severe water stress. The objective of the study was to evaluate a variety of soil and plant-based water status and drought stress monitoring methods on the basis of tree-scale evapotranspiration (ET). As the trees entered into and recovered from water stress, meteorological data, actual ET (ET_a), soil water content and changes in leaf turgor pressure were continuously monitored. Additionally, midday measurements of stem water potential, stomatal conductance, canopy temperature, and quantum yield of PSII photochemistry were conducted. Diurnal (dawn to dusk) measurements of all the above were made hourly on days of maximum stress. Shoot elongation rate was measured for periods of stress and recovery. Quantum yield of PSII photochemistry, stomatal conductance, and stem water potential all successfully indicated reductions in whole-tree water consumption beginning at moderate stress levels. These measured parameters fully recovered to the levels of non-stressed trees soon after water application was renewed. Shoot elongation was reduced 25-30% for the 10-day period during and following drought and recovered thereafter to levels of non-stressed trees. Whole-tree ET_a was reduced by as much as 20% even following full recovery of the leaf level parameters, suggesting reduced canopy size and growth due to the stress period. Non-destructive, continuous (turgor pressure) and remotely sensed (canopy temperature) methods showed promising potential for monitoring effects of water stress, in spite of technological and data interpretation challenges requiring further attention.     

无人机热红外反演土壤含水率的方法

以不同生育期夏玉米为对象,讨论无人机热红外反演夏玉米田土壤含水率的精度及反演方法.利用无人机获取试验区的可见光和热红外图像.通过可见光图像提取冠层掩膜并叠加在热红外图像上提取玉米冠层温度,分析冠层温度的变化趋势及与叶面积指数(LAI)的相关性.最后,利用冠气温差的相反数与叶面积指数构建了一个新指标(D_TL),讨论了冠气温差或D_TL指标反演土壤含水率的准确性.结果表明:冠层温度随着土壤含水量的增加而降低,夏玉米LAI在一定程度上可以表征冠层温度;对比4个时期的数据,发现冠气温差反演效果在灌溉后较好(如2次灌后R²分别为0.614 6和0.463 7);与冠气温差相比,D_TL指标可以提高土壤含水量反演的精度,如0~20 cm深度的R²从0.614 6和0.463 7提高到0.661 6和0.485 0.该研究对热红外反演夏玉米田间土壤含水率方法进行了新的尝试.     

面向植物抗旱性研究的多源表型信息采集和分析技术

利用表型信息采集系统获取不同生长环境下的植物形态结构和生理生化数据,研究植物体对不同胁迫的反应,从而进行抗性育种和筛选优质良种.本文构建了一套由双CCD相机、热成像仪、水分控制模块、称量模块、光源等组成的多源表型信息采集系统,采用YOLO v3目标检测算法和图像处理算法提取了植物投影叶面积、株高、叶片数量、冠层温度等表...     

基于无人机多光谱影像的柑橘冠层叶绿素含量反演

叶绿素是一种反映植物生长水平和健康状况的重要生理生化指标,为快速、无损地大规模获取柑橘冠层的叶绿素含量以精确指导果园管理,利用多旋翼无人机搭载多光谱传感器获取多波段反射率数据,使用多光谱阴影指数对冠层阴影和土壤背景进行剔除,计算得到植被指数与纹理特征,将地面实测的叶绿素含量作为验证,综合对比了全子集回归、偏最小二乘回归和深层神经网络的反演精度以选取最优模型。结果表明,植被指数与叶绿素含量的相关性良好;将仅使用植被指数与仅使用纹理特征的建模结果进行对比,仅使用纹理特征的模型在全子集回归和偏最小二乘回归的反演精度均有明显提升;结合植被指数与纹理特征共同建模后,全子集回归和偏最小二乘回归的反演精度相比仅使用纹理特征的模型均能获得提升;深层神经网络因其良好的非线性拟合能力,获得了最高的反演精度,R²、MAE、RMSE分别为0.665、7.69 mg/m²、9.49 mg/m²,成为本文最优模型。本研究利用无人机多光谱影像反演得到柑橘冠层叶绿素含量,为实现柑橘生长监测提供指导作用。     

基于多光谱成像和卷积神经网络的玉米作物营养状况识别方法研究

水肥一体化自动装备的使用能够有效提高水肥资源利用率，但需要在作业前获知作物的营养状况及水肥需求量，而通过人工手持测量仪器来获取这些信息，存在着时效性差和劳动强度大等缺点。针对以上问题，本研究以常见的作物玉米为研究对象，使用大疆精灵Ⅲ无人机携带RedEdge-M多光谱相机在田间上空采集玉米多光谱图像，同时使用YLS-D系列植株营养测定仪测量玉米植株的氮素和水分含量等营养信息，根据这些信息将采集的图像分为3个等级（每个等级共包含530幅五通道图像，其中480幅作为训练集，50幅作为验证集），提出了一种基于卷积神经网络的玉米作物营养状况识别方法。并基于TensorFlow深度学习框架搭建了ResNet18卷积神经网络模型，通过向模型输入彩色图像数据和五通道多光谱图像数据，分别训练出适合于彩色图像和多光谱图像的玉米植株营养状况等级识别模型。试验结果表明：训练后的模型能够识别玉米作物的彩色图像和多光谱图像，能够输出玉米的营养状况等级和GPS 信息，识别彩色图像模型在验证集的正确率为84.7%，识别多光谱图像模型在验证集的正确率为90.5%，模型训练平均时间为4.5h，五通道图像识别平均用时为3.56s。该识别方法可快速无损地获取玉米作物的营养状况，为有效提高水肥资源利用率提供了方法和依据。     

Spatial analysis of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) canopy responses to irrigation in a moderately humid area

Accurate irrigation scheduling is important to ensure maximum yield and optimal water use in irrigated cotton. This study hypothesizes that cotton water stress in relatively humid areas can be detected from crop stress indices derived from canopy reflectance or temperature. Field experiments were conducted in the 2003 and 2004 crop seasons with three irrigation treatments and multiple cultivars to study cotton response to water stress. The experiment plots were monitored for soil water potential (SWP), canopy reflectance and canopy temperature. Four crop stress indices namely normalized difference vegetative index (NDVI), green NDVI (GNDVI), stress time (ST) index and crop water stress index (CWSI) were evaluated for their ability to indicate water stress. These indices were analyzed with classic mixed regression models and spatial regression models for split-plot design. Rainfall was plentiful in both seasons, providing conditions representative of irrigated agriculture in relatively wet regions. Under such wet weather conditions, excessive irrigation decreased lint yield, indicating the necessity for accurate irrigation scheduling. The four crop stress indices showed significant responses to irrigation treatments and strong correlation to SWP at shallow (0.2 m) depth. Spatial regression models were able to accurately explain the effect of irrigation treatment, while classic split-plot ANOVA models were confounded by collinearity in data across space and time. The results also verified that extreme humidity can mask canopy temperature differences with respect to ambient temperature, adding errors to canopy temperature-based stress indicators.

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