Agroforestry experimentation: Separating the wood from the trees?

ICRAF has evolved and evaluated experimental approaches to agroforestry problems which will help resercchers reach practical conclusions most cost-effectively in the shortest possible time, and with only limited resources. This has meant looking into the experimental phases needed, developing the conceptual background to research problems which involve the complex spatial/temporal features of agroforestry systems, suggesting and initiating simplified field experimental designs and/or assessment methodologies, and establishing source and reference design materials about agroforestry research for distribution.These four sets of activities are outlined and briefly discussed in relation to some of the key research issues which have emerged.Suitable methods for many areas of experimental agroforestry are rapidly being defined, although some of the more complex issues (e.g. multistrata systems, on-farm research with multipurpose trees and tree/crop mixtures) still need a focused attempt to develop appropriate research methodologies.Head, Research Development Division, ICRAF     

Agroforestry education and training programs: an overview

Agroforestry has been incorporated in education and training programs at an unprecedented level since 1982. A survey of educational institutions conducted by ICRAF in 1987 revealed that agroforestry is found as an option for specialization in undergraduate as well as in postgraduate M.Sc, diploma programs in forestry, agriculture, natural resources, and others. Courses and special seminars in agroforestry are organized in degree programs. Full undergraduate and postgraduate programs in agroforestry are being formulated and implementation started in quite a few universities, and many students are choosing agroforestry-oriented research projects for their dissertations. A good setting for higher degree training in agroforestry requires, however, staffing from combined faculties of at least agriculture, animal science and forestry; faculty commitment to a farming systems approach; and inter-departmental cooperation in teaching and research. It was difficult to asses whether these and other elements are present in existing programs where agroforestry has been incorporated. Emerging trends indicate that traditional forestry programs are broadening the scope of the discipline (from forests to integrated land-use systems) while agriculturists are recognizing that trees play important roles as soil improvers and protectors, fodder, food, fuel and other domestic and commercial purposes. New institutional structures are evolving to allow for educational programs with coursework and research projects spanning many disciplines. Nondegree training in agroforestry has seen an upsurge of activities equal, if not larger, to that in education. Attempts are being made by different institutions worldwide to inventory training opportunities; still the collection and dissemination of information is difficult. Efforts are needed at the international, regional, and national levels, to address training issues that if addressed collectively can improve the quality and effectiveness of human resource development efforts. ICRAF's approach to promote agroforestry research through education and training is an example of an action program currently under application.     

The ICRAF approach to international cooperation

At present ICRAF international cooperation channels the Council's contribution to efforts by national and international research institutions in both the generation of agroforestry technologies and person-power development. This paper attempts a critical evaluation of the evolutionary process that led ICRAF collaborative activities from their initial role of creating opportunities for testing methodologies to the on-going networking stage.Two stages are distinguished in the initial development phase; the one contributing to the building of an institutional capability (more in-house cooperation), and the follow-up stage where activities were aimed at establishing a basis for continuous collaboration with partner institutions.The present networking phase, with an African focus, is based on the assumption that institutional complementarity is the appropriate scheme to overcome the effect of constraints prevailing in the continenta on the generation of appropriate agroforestry technologies. In this context, an ecozone scope, integrated planning and a network organizational structure are proposed as pillars of an ICRAF strategy to achieve complementarity in agroforestry research for development.Head, Collaborative Programmers Division, ICRAF     

Agroforestry training and education at ICRAF: accomplishments and challenges

This article is a review of ICRAF's efforts over the past six years to strengthen the capability of national institutions in developing countries for the diagnosis of land management problems, identification of agroforestry potentials and research priorities, and design of appropriate agroforestry systems. The article highlights the development of the programme structure and organization as well as the main accomplishments. The evolution of the focus of T&E in support of ICRAF's collaborative research activities is based on the conviction that it is mainly by strengthening national research capabilities that appropriate agroforestry technology will be generated in response to countries' needs.Since 1982, the Council has organized seven international training courses which were held in Kenya as well as regionally and in-country; twenty-two resident trainees completed 3- to 6-month internships at ICRAF and project sites; and four research fellows/visiting scientists undertook long-term agroforestry research alongside ICRAF's multidisciplinary team, bringing the total number of researchers directly trained by ICRAF to over 250. Training modules and training materials were also developed to be used by other institutions in teaching agroforestry-related topics.Principal Training Officer, ICRAF     

Evaluating agroforestry interventions in extension projects

Because of the relative dearth of scientific information in agroforestry, monitoring and evaluation of agroforestry technologies in development projects plays an important role in the development and improvement of technical extension recommendations. To identify appropriate methodologies, ICRAF conducted in 1988–89 a review of agroforestry technology monitoring and evaluation in 166 projects worldwide, of which 108 responded. Almost 80% of these were involved in technology evaluation. Many extension projects were conducting research to test technologies on-farm or on research plots. Technology evaluation by projects focused on the biological of trees, often with inadequate consideration of the technology context. Few projects seemed to use farmer assessment in evaluation. Recommendations are made for an effective evaluation process and selection of appropriate methods and variables to be assessed by projects. Methods should be selected according to the availability of resources and should favour collaborative or collegial interaction between farmers and project staff.     

ICRAF's multipurpose tree and shrub information system

Woody perennials are vital components of agroforestry systems. However, the state of knowledge about most of the large number of useful species is inferior to that about other components in such systems. In order to close this gap and expedite research, ICRAF has built up a multipurpose tree and shrub information system. The recommendations of an international workshop on multipurpose tree germplasm, organized by ICRAF in collaboration with CFI and IBPGR, have been instrumental in either encouraging the pursuance of activities already started or initiating new projects. In its endeavour to serve those institutions and individual scientists who require information on multipurpose trees, ICRAF has established a Multipurpose Tree and Shrub Data Base and compiled and published a Multipurpose Tree and Shrub Seed Directory. As by-products of these two core activities, a number of related projects have been carried out, including the development of a rapid appraisal methodology for selecting priority species for further development, the preparation of multipurpose tree and shrub crop sheets, and an inventory of MPT-related data bases. In a considerable number of publications the concepts and objectives of these activities have been explained. More than 140 information requests in multipurpose trees have been answered with the help of the Multipurpose Tree and Shrub Data Base and the information gap concerning germplasm availability has been closed by the publication of the Multipurpose Tree and Shrub Seed Directory.Senior Research Scientist, ICRAF     

Technology impact evaluation in agroforestry projects

To identify appropriate methods for evaluating the impact of new agroforestry technologies, ICRAF in 1988–89 contacted 166 projects worldwide about their activities in agroforestry technology monitoring and evaluation. Of the 108 which responded, 45% were involved in some type of impact evaluation. This review revealed common difficulties in selecting impact indicators and methods of evaluation. Emphasis to date has been on evaluating numbers of trees planted and area under agroforestry, rather than socioeconomic impacts. Defining agroforestry adoption and distinguishing intermediate and final impacts were problematic. Impact studies were often difficult to interpret or compare, limiting their value for the rest of the agroforestry community. An analytical framework for planning impact evaluation in agroforestry projects is proposed, based on lessons learned from the review. Selection of indicators should depend upon whether project objectives relate to changes in: number and type of trees grown, land use, farmer knowledge and attitudes, availability of agroforestry products and services, and/or socioeconomic welfare. Data collection tools may include sequential photography or mapping, informal or formal farmer surveys, informal or formal field surveys, farmer meetings and workshops, trend analysis of project records, and case studies of households or communities, depending upon the audience for project evaluation and project resources.     

Resource development for professional education and training in agroforestry

The development of agroforestry education and training is hampered by a shortage of information on agroforestry practices and systems and by institutional constraints which limit effective transfer of existing knowledge. Generation of knowledge through research and the effective sharing of information on agroforestry are critical to the building of a solid resource base for agroforestry education. Networks of individuals and institutions can accelerate the development of resources for agroforestry education. Primary activities of an agroforestry network would include the development and dissemination of training materials on agroforestry, curriculum development and training of teaching staff. Critical considerations for the successful establishment and operation of a network include: (1) focusing the network on a problem and identifying sufficient interest, (2) personnel requirements such as an institution with a strong commitment, and (3) other resource requirements such as funds for network meetings, publications and research.     

ICRAF Field Station at Machakos

ICRAF has a Field Station at Machakos, 70 km south-east of Nairobi on a 40-ha site. It provides a good collection of a large number of multipurpose trees and shrubs useful in agroforestry, experimental designs, agroforestry technologie,, demonstration oof some agroforestry practices and interventions such as alley cropping, soil conservation technologies, etc. These demonstration-and trial-plots that are conducted by the Council's multidisciplinary team of scientists are also used to a limited extent for obtaining scientific information on the performance of the various species involved and of their response to management as well as interactions. The Station is visited regularly by an average of 350 individuals of various types per year, and is used for different kinds of training and field demonstrations.Principal Scientist, ICRAF     

Economics of agroforestry

Although from the start ICRAF recognized the importance of the socio-economic dimensions of agroforestry land-use systems, it was only five years after its official commencement that an economist was added to the staff. During the last five years no attempt has been made to create a separate Economics Department with its own programme. Rather, the emphasis has been on supporting on-going ICRAF activities by trying to make “economics’ an integral part of eachof these activities.

Nevertheless, in summarizing these efforts, five major areas of work can be identified:
1. Economic concepts;
2. Methods and tools for economic assessment;
3. Economic information gathering;
4. Economic analysis proper;
5. Training and dissemination.

The achievements in each of these areas, as well as some ideas on possible trends, will be summarized in this paper.     

西双版纳现有混农林系统的主要模式

本文在对西双版纳现有混农林系统进行广泛调查的基础上,根据国际混农林研究委员会(ICRAF)P.K.R.Nair的分类方法,将其进行了分类和评价。结果表明,该地区现存混农林系统的模式极为丰富,并以经济植物为主体的模式占较大优势。这些模式,有的已经发挥出较好的生态、经济和社会效益,有的仍处于实验阶段,有的则对合理利用当地自然资源造成不良的影响。提出了必须合理开发利用当地自然资源,积极创立和引进以粮食作物为主体的混农林系统模式的见解。     

From research to communication in agroforestry: Some insights from the MAB Programme

Attempts within the Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme of Unesco to produce research findings and information materials useful for education and training in agroforestry are outlined. Three different field projects — one in the humid tropics of Mexico, another in an urban situation in Papua New Guinea, the third in the arid zones of northern Kenya — provide examples of the types of educational materials and training activities that can be integrated within field research projects. Lessons learned in the preparation of a poster-exhibit ‘Ecology in Action’, and their possible relevance to the development of programmes in agroforestry education, are described.     

Soil productivity,soil conservation and land evaluation

ICRAF's main contributions to research related to soils have been a symposium, Soils Research in Agroforestry; a review of soil productivity aspects of agroforestry; a further review of the potential of agroforestry for soil conservation, covering both erosion control and maintenance of fertility; the construction of a computerized model to predict soil changes under agroforestry systems; and a handbook of practical methods of agroforestry for soil and water conservation in dryland Africa. In research on land evaluation, an environmental data base has been established, leading to a capacity to obtain information, for environmental conditions similar to those of a given site or area, on publications, multipurpose trees, crops, existing agroforestry systems and current experimental work. Land evaluation for agroforestry cannot be achieved merely by synthesis of methods from agriculture and forestry, but will require more data on the performance of agroforestry land utilization types. Recognition of problems of environmental degradation has become an integral part of planning for agroforestry research. By means of a partial synthesis between land evaluation and diagnosis and design, a procedure of site selection for agroforestry research and development has been established.Principal Scientist, ICRAF     

A computerized database as decision support tool for the selection of agroforestry tree species

Whether in agroforestry in temperate or tropical zones, choosing the right species is one of the most crucial stages of experiments and for reforestation, erosion control or land-improvement projects.Over the last decade, ICRAF has developed a tool to help researchers, extension workers, foresters and others in the decision process. The Multipurpose Tree & Shrub Database (MPTS) contains information about more than 1,000 species. Most of these species are grown in the tropical and subtropical zones, but many of them have a potential for temperate areas as well.MPTS contains first-hand, site-specific information about multipurpose tree species. This information makes it possible for the user to compare his or her site conditions with the site conditions described in the database, and allows him/her to draw conclusions about the possible species performance. MPTS also contains secondary information from publications.Candidate species are searched by entering keywords from a list of 19 correlated criteria, such as soil information, expected services or wood and non-wood products. Detailed information about the selected candidates (e.g. morphology, management, environmental responses) is provided.Beyond this, MPTS is a quick reference tool for the multiple use of tree and shrub species. In future it will include a comprehensive guide to germplasm information. Current activities include the implementation of an interactive use-interface and links to related databases.     

Status of agroforestry education in India

India is perhaps the world leader in development of agroforestry education, training and research. The Indian Council of Agricultural Research sanctioned an All-India Coordinated Research Project on agroforestry in 1983, to be headquartered in Delhi but with research centers in 20 other locations countrywide. The agricultural universities in India have a major role to play, with all institutions having agroforestry teaching programs by 1990. At this point there is a great shortage of faculty trained in agroforestry. Demand for qualified graduates with this training is only going to increase.     

Agroforestry training and education in Central America: learning from past experiences

While discussing existing and emerging programs in agroforestry education and training, it is important to review our experience in this field during the past nearly four decades in Central America. During the period, I have trained over 150 graduate students (26 of them completing MS degree with thesis), and offered 19 intensive short courses in several countries of the Latin American region. My experience from these activities shows that adequate library, documentation and research-field facilities, and a critical mass of training personnel are essential for the success of the graduate programs. Additionally, for the short courses, intensive field exercises in data collection and analysis should be given a high priority in the curriculum. Although past short courses have been of a general nature, future courses may focus on specific agroforestry technologies that are common in the region.     

韩国山林农业概况与类型

"山林复合经营项目"是韩国在1999年为了增加林业从业者的收入而正式实施的,主要包括短期收入、木材生产和复合山地管理3种类型。截至2005年,该项目在韩国国内的168个市(区)都得到了推广。文中主要介绍韩国山林农业系统,分析该系统存在的问题并探讨与之相应的解决方案,提出应在开发更可行的复合农林经营模式的基础上加大对林业从业者的培训和奖励力度并改善对复合农林业的支持制度。     

The state of the art of agroforestry diagnosis and design

Seven years ago the International Council for Research in Agroforestry set out to develop a methodology for the diagnosis of land management problems and design of agroforestry systems. Since then over 60 documents (articles, conference papers and manuals) relating to the D & D methodology have been published by ICRAF and the methodology has been used to develop agroforestry plans and identify research priorities for a wide range of ecological and cultural conditions throughout the tropical regions of Africa, Latin America and Asia. This article reviews the evolution of the D & D methodology and suggests directions for its future development.Ecological Anthropologist, ICRAF