Enhancing Tree Seedling Supply to Smallholders in Leyte Province, Philippines: An Evaluation of the Production System of Government Nursery Sector and Support to Smallholder Tree Farmers

A decentralized seedling production is regarded as the most effective means of providing smallholders with planting materials. However, the sustainability of smallholder nursery operation is constrained by several factors, including the limited availability of germplasm, lack of technical skills and low seedling demand low viability of seedling market. The government nursery sector could complement the weaknesses of the smallholder nursery group but government nurseries are not operating effectively to enhance the availability of high quality seedlings of a wide species base for smallholder forestry. Seedling production in government nurseries is quantity-orientated with low emphasis on the production of high quality planting materials. Germplasm used in seedling production is mostly collected from unselected sources and seedlings produced are mostly of low physical quality. The species selection in government nurseries is heavily based on the availability of germplasm which resulted in the production of a few species which are commonly raised on private nurseries. The duplication of species of most seedlings raised in government nurseries with those produced in private nurseries and the far distance of government nurseries from the villages has resulted in low uptake of seedlings by smallholder tree farmers. For the government nursery sector to become more effective in providing support in the present paradigm of decentralized seeding production, a change from its production system and a broadening of the role it plays is needed. The social mobilization on seedling production as a scheme of implementing the Green Philippines Program has led the Department of Environment and Natural Resources to acknowledge the seedling production activity of private individual and communal nursery groups. This can be an opportunity for organizing the private and government nursery sectors to promote the operational effectiveness of the overall forest nursery industry.     

Tree Seedling Production Systems in Northern Mindanao, Philippines

This paper examines seedling production systems for small-scale forestry in northern Mindanao, particularly the constraints and opportunities to sustain the operation of smallholder nurseries. Various types of nurseries were identified to examine issues and concerns operators face, and data collected through a survey of nursery operators, discussion with government and NGO personnel, and literature review. Many smallholders in northern Mindanao have been engaged in seedling production, for farm needs and sale in local markets. The interest of smallholder to sustain seedling production depends on market demand and incentives, which translates to financial benefit on sound nursery practices and of reliable access to profitable markets. Activities that will assist smallholder nurseries to achieve full potential have been identified as: available nursery technologies to produce high quality planting materials in sufficient quantity; building farmer groups to facilitate seedling production and enhance the scale of product marketing; building partnerships with various service providers and other stakeholders to address technical, institutional, marketing and policy issues that may hamper the operation of smallholder nurseries; access to markets and market information; and provision of incentives and policy support. Associated benefits from small-scale seedling production accrue to the government, wood processors and to the public in general.     

Decentralization of Tree Seedling Supply Systems for Afforestation in the West of Yunnan Province, China

At present, China has the highest afforestation rate of any country or region in the world, with 47,000 km² of tree plantations undertaken in 2008. While the prominent role of the central government’s afforestation programs is well-known, little is understood of how the system of tree seedling production and distribution supports afforestation efforts. More importantly, little attention is paid to how small-scale farmers access high quality tree germplasm in the afforestation programs. This paper examines the seedling supply system in the west of Yunnan Province in China by focusing on the three types of tree nurseries (state, collective and individual) that are being operated for the development of smallholder forestry especially in the context of decentralization. The research reveals that forestry decentralization has provided support for smallholder access to high quality planting materials and improved the effectiveness of nursery management. The reform has enabled the engagement of various forms of nurseries and created a hybrid system of state nursery operations. However, the state monopoly over the major seedling supply system using its inherent technical, market, policy and institutional advantages has limited the development of small-scale nurseries. The policy implication of this research is that improvements to the governance structure in the supply system of tree seedling may require more investment in nursery techniques, market information and provision of incentives to enhance small-scale nurseries and to contribute to seedling production.     

Development and Implementation of a Forest Nursery Accreditation Policy at a Local Level in Leyte, Philippines

Through a series of workshops with the stakeholders including nursery operators, tree farmers, staff of the Department of Environment and Natural Resources, local government units and the academe, a forestry seedling nursery accreditation policy was developed. The resulting policy was subsequently implemented by the municipal government of Palompon, Leyte. The accreditation policy encouraged nursery operators to follow smallholder-based best management practices for tree nurseries. Implementation of the nursery accreditation policy improved farmers’ knowledge and skills in the production of high quality seedlings, encouraged adoption of BMP for forest nurseries, provided additional source of income for the farmers, enabled members of the groups operating the communal nursery to forge closer relationship with each other, encouraged utilization of farmers’ free time in productive activities, developed farmers’ confidence in producing high quality planting materials, and gained for the farmers favourable attention from various organizations and groups. The Bennett’s hierarchy of project outcomes showed that the implementation of accreditation scheme achieved high levels of outcomes, indicating that it led to substantial improvements in the lives of the farmers.     

Nursery Training for Smallholders: An Evaluation of Two Extension Programs in the Philippines

High-quality seedlings are a prerequisite for successful forestry and agroforestry expansion in developing countries. Unfortunately, in the central Philippines, as supplies of timber from native forest have diminished in recent years, the expansion in planting of timber trees has been retarded by sub-optimal production of seedlings from small-scale nurseries. To address this problem, an extension program supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) has attempted to improve the quality of seedlings produced in home nurseries, by assisting smallholders to raise and out-plant seedlings. A complementary program undertaken as part of the Community Agricultural Technology Program (CATP) has attempted to provide community workers and managers of small-scale nurseries with the benefit of recent ACIAR nursery research. Extended assistance in the ACIAR program addressed smallholders’ low self-efficacy in nursery technology and was successful in assisting them to grow high quality seedlings. A limited program of assistance was relatively unsuccessful. Evaluation of the CATP program showed that prior to the training, CATP participants were unfamiliar with some aspects of basic nursery technology. Consequently, they may have been unable to provide competent advice to smallholders. This implies that—as with the ACIAR training—extended training and follow-up assistance may be the key to improving the quality of seedlings for forestry and agroforestry expansion in the central Philippines.     

Financing Methods for Small-Scale Hardwood Plantations in Queensland, Australia

Under Vision 2020, a target was set in 1997 for trebling the forestry plantation area in Australia by the year 2020. Government subsidies and extension for plantation establishment have largely disappeared, hence forestry expansion is highly dependent on access to private finance. Plantation expansions throughout Australia has occurred predominantly through managed investment schemes, and to a lesser extent by joint venture schemes between landholders and government or private enterprise. Relatively small-scale hardwood plantations have been established, designed to replace the hardwood timber from the native forests that will be protected from further logging after 2024 under the Regional Forestry Agreements. Views on financing methods for forestry expansion in Queensland were investigated through by an email survey of 12 forestry and finance professionals, followed by in-depth personal interviews of the same group of key informants. Issues identified include lack of transparent information, inequitable taxation system between Managed Investment Scheme (MIS) companies and small-scale forest owners, need for further R&D on all aspects of the industry, and design of a strategic alliance model for forestry investors. Participants took the view that adoption of a strategic alliance model would encourage further investment in small-scale forestry and argued that this model could protect the interests of all the stakeholders through reducing investment risk and creating competitive advantage. The potential introduction of a carbon trading scheme also attracted interest from investors, who look for recognisable structures that may alleviate the risk of investing in an industry with which they are unfamiliar. The participants considered that further R&D should be the main focus for government participation in small-scale forestry, although recognizing current difficulties with information sharing.     

Getting Trees Into Farmers’ Fields: Success of Rural Nurseries in Distributing High Quality Planting Material in Cameroon

Availability of high quality tree planting material within proximity of farmers and at affordable prices is one of the prerequisites for larger uptake of tree cultivation. This study examines whether rural small-scale nurseries can produce a diversity of tree planting material and whether resource-poor farmers have access to it. Twelve nurseries supported by the tree domestication program in the West and North-west regions of Cameroon were compared to 12 nurseries in similar conditions, but not in contact with the program. Nurseries using the domestication approach were found to provide tree planting material that responds better to farmers’ needs in terms of quantities, species and propagation methods used. Their clientele is more diverse including farmers from the communities where the nurseries are located, but also from far beyond. However, prices of vegetatively propagated material were considered the most prohibitive factor. It is concluded that tree planting initiatives should refocus efforts towards technical training and business support to small-scale nurseries to increase efficiency. Research efforts should look for ways of reducing production costs and improving nursery productivity.     

Assessing the Quality of Seedlings in Small-scale Nurseries in the Highlands of Cameroon: The Use of Growth Characteristics and Quality Thresholds as Indicators

In developing countries seedlings are often produced in small-scale nurseries as a means to raise tree planting materials and, provided they are of high quality, these can form the basis for successful forest plantation initiatives. This study uses morphological characteristics to assess the quality of seedlings of three tree species (Persea americana, Cola acuminata and Dacryodes edulis) in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. The growth characteristics and quality indicators of seedlings produced in two nursery categories were compared—three nurseries collaborating with the tree domestication program implemented by the World Agroforestry Centre (Category 1) and three nurseries collaborating with government and non-governmental projects (Category 2). Seedlings produced in nurseries in the first nursery category were found to be uniform in terms of growth characteristics and quality indicators. In the second category, there were relatively higher seedling proportions having measured parameters out of threshold standards for root to shoot ratio and for sturdiness quotient. Significant differences between nursery categories (at α = 0.05) were detected in root collar diameter of C. acuminata and D. edulis and in shoot dry weight of D. edulis. These differences could be attributed to better nursery management as a results of training and technical backstopping received by nursery operators in Category 1. The level of experience of nursery operators in both categories was found to be insufficient and greater exposure to skills and knowledge could enhance the production of high quality seedlings.     

德国林业考察报告

德国是一个林业发达的国家，景色秀丽，“近自然林业”深刻地影响德国林业近一个世纪的发展历程，以母树种子培育苗木，这种看似保守的做法，反映出德国在培育最接近自然的优良苗木方面，已经走在世界的前列。德国的近自然林业、生态景观林业、森林旅游、林业宣传教育、树木苗圃、花卉市场以及林业管理等方面，很值得我们效法借鉴。     

林业工厂化育苗穴盘标准的制订

育苗穴盘是农林容器育苗过程中的重要育苗容器,制订其规格标准可有效地促进先进穴盘育苗技术的普及、配套技术装备的发展、规模化生产成本的控制等。结合对育苗穴盘的研究及标准制订过程中技术参数的确定、系列型谱确定和试验方法等问题,阐述了林业工厂化育苗穴盘标准制订的主要内容和依据。     

A Critical Overview of Forestry Seedling Production Policies and Practices in Relation to Smallholder Forestry in Developing Countries

This paper reviews forestry seedling production systems in South-east and East Asia and identifies problems with respect to seedling quality, seedling distribution and financial sustainability, and measures which have been adopted or advocated to improve performance in this sector. The paper draws in particular on experience in a series of research projects on smallholder forestry in the Philippines. Some observations are also drawn from the following papers in this combined special issue of Small-scale Forestry. It is found that a mix of public and private sector models are adopted for forestry seedling production, between and even within countries. Often nurseries are set up to provide seedlings for a government-directed expansion in tree planting, and have difficulty surviving once the initial planting purpose is completed. Private nurseries often lack resources, and depend on contracts to supply seedlings for financial viability. Demand tends to be highest for fast-growing species (often exotics), fruit trees, and ornamentals in the case of urban nurseries. Government policies typically favour quantity over quality of the seedlings produced. Considerable scope exists for adopting best or at least improved management practice in seedling nurseries.     

关于黑龙江省森工推进苗圃建设快速发展的建议

育苗事业是林业建设中最基础和最具有长远意义的工作,苗圃建设与管理是保证苗木供应的核心。本文对近年来育苗工作的基本情况作了简要的介绍,指出存在的问题,并就如何推进苗圃建设快速发展提出建议。     

Assessing Market Potential of Agroforestry Tree Seedlings in Western Kenya

In this study, Porter’s framework is used to analyse the forces that coordinate and control the market for agroforestry tree seedlings in the Nyando basin in Western Kenya where smallholder farmers were assisted by non-governmental and research organisations to start tree seedling nurseries, with a view to fostering adoption of agroforestry in the region. In addition, financial viability of the enterprise is assessed and the resources and interventions required to improve the operators’ competitiveness and make the enterprise sustainable are identified. Primary data collected from eight nursery operators and sixty agroforestry farmers are used and supplemented with secondary information obtained from relevant literature to gain an insight into the tree seedling industry within and outside the region. The results indicate that the tree seedling industry is highly competitive and is characterised by several small-scale operators who employ similar strategies and produce and sell nearly homogenous products. Consequently, competition is based on price rather than on strategies that require capital investments such as branding, product differentiation and product promotion. The enterprise is financially viable but the gross margins, particularly those of timber tree seedlings, are sensitive to low seedling prices suggesting that competitors are exerting pressure on prices and profitability. Thus, to gain an edge over the competitors, the small-scale operators need to build competitive advantage by adopting strategies that allow them to charge higher prices for their products, maintain customer brand loyalty and understand the coordination, control and relationships within the industry.     

论农林业苗圃的现代化

针对我国农林业苗圃建设的实际,通过参考国内外对现代化的界定、现代化农业和现代化企业的内涵及理解,研究了现代化苗圃的一些基本特征,旨在为反映一个苗圃的现代化实现程度提供科学的参考依据。     

Promoting seedling stress resistance through nursery techniques in China

Plantation forestry is one of the most important approaches to restoring forest cover in China. Of the remaining sites suitable for afforestation in China, 52?% are considered harsh and only 13?% considered good, which indicates that successfully establishing a plantation in the future will become more and more difficult. Seedling quality in terms of morphology, physiology, and viability is a critical aspect for successful plantation establishment. Due to a large area in need of afforestation, and because of its diverse harsh sites, many studies have focused on nursery techniques of promoting seedling stress resistance, including inoculating ectomycorrhizal fungi, applying plant growth regulators, use of fall fertilization, induced water stresses, or a combined use of these methods. Most of relevant results of this research have been published in Chinese, and are unknown to researchers from other countries. Moreover, no comprehensive review of stress resistance research in forest tree seedlings in China has been completed. Therefore, this review intends to provide a concise synthesis of literature related to plant manipulation techniques that offer seedling stress resistance in Chinese nurseries, discuss potential shortcomings of these studies, and define priorities for future seedling stress resistance research. With this paper we hope to enhance communication about nursery and plantation seedling culture among researchers from China and other countries.     

Compiling Market and Other Financial Data on Smallholder Forestry in Leyte, the Philippines

Data collection and maintenance of databases concerning smallholder forestry presents special problems in developing countries. This paper examines forestry data collection experiences in a series of research projects in Leyte, Philippines, supported by the Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, and the prospects for developing forestry accounting networks. A variety of financial data have been collected in relation to seedling production, plantation performance and timber marketing. Seedling production cost and revenue data have been obtained through snapshot surveys conducted in 2002 and 2008, and repeated attempts have been made to estimate financial returns from growing the most popular tree species. Diverse sources have been identified for timber market information. On the supply side, these include government records of registered plantations, obtaining inventory data from barangay (community) leaders, and reporting information about timber available for harvest on community notice boards. On the demand side, official records of registered timber merchants have been accessed, a detailed survey of timber processors has been conducted, and estimates are being made of apparent per capita timber consumption by district. Experiences in the Philippines reinforce that the potential for forestry accounting networks is limited by the resource-constrained situations of developing countries, placing greater reliance on one-off surveys. Use of pre-existing local networks and institutional structures offers potential for routine collection of forestry data, such as through barangay (village) leaders in the Philippines.     

Conducting surveys on forestry attitudes and practices in Leyte communities,Philippines: Experiences and lessons learnt

A survey of forestry practices and attitudes was undertaken in four communities in Leyte, the Philippines, to improve understanding of the social and economic factors affecting small-scale forestry development. The survey had three main data collection activities — initial focus group discussions (FGDs), household interviews, and reporting and validation FGDs. A team of enumerators was selected for household interviews which consisted of both males and females, to avoid potential problems of unwillingness of people to talk with those of the opposite gender. The interviewers were also required to be able to speak local dialects (Cebuano and Waray Waray), the survey questionnaires being administered in these dialects. Various methods were used to gain the support and assistance of local government units and barangay captains. Some difficulty was experienced by the survey team in the first community due to barangay elections at the time of the survey, and the requirement by the University of Queensland Ethics Committee that respondents sign a consent form. This requirement was found to be not culturally appropriate for the Leyte smallholder communities. Offering goods at the end of the interview was found to be of limited value for encouraging participation in the survey. Provision of food and drinks were found to encourage FGD participants to express their views, but too much alcohol had a negative effect. The importance of providing comprehensive feedback to respondents and involving them and other stakeholders in development of policy recommendations was apparent. These survey experiences provide valuable insights which are not generally available in textbooks on sample surveys, and provide lessons for planning and conducting smallholder community survey into natural resource management issues.     

Commercial viability of conservation and social forestry outreach nurseries in South Africa

Nurseries are risky ventures, even in conducive operating environments. Unlike many of their international counterparts, financial objectives are usually important to South African outreach nurseries, to generate funds for projects and/or to enhance local livelihoods. However, most are situated in low-income areas where residents have limited spending power. This paper examines the commercial viability of ten outreach nurseries from six provinces, with a range of conservation objectives. Management performance was assessed through correspondence and financial ratio analyses. Although seven projects had built up steady markets, this took 5–8 years to achieve, even in intensively funded projects. Only one nursery had achieved a steady annual net profit. The prolonged establishment phases impacted negatively on participants’ livelihoods and project processes. Marketing difficulties included a lack of markets, nurseries being located far from markets, pricing difficulties, inadequate transport and limited marketing communications. Seasonal factors exacerbated liquidity shortfalls. Conservation activities such as greening and rehabilitation programmes provided markets, but medicinal plant nurseries struggled to achieve both conservation and socio-economic objectives, largely through difficulties experienced in providing seedlings at prices that subsistence sector resource users could afford. To achieve commercial viability, outreach enterprises need to adhere to business fundamentals viz. effective planning, management and coordination of resources, monitoring and control. Thorough viability studies are crucial. Alternate natural resource management and income generating strategies need to be evaluated, as a nursery may not be the best means of achieving these. The current Build–Operate–Transfer approach to projects by many supporting organisations is cause for concern as even small-scale projects usually require intensive support.     

湖北省林业示范苗圃发展现状与对策

本文简述了湖北省林业苗圃的发展现状 ,分析了国内外苗圃发展动态 ,针对薄弱环节提出了发展对策 ,对林业苗圃建设有一定的借鉴意义     

吉林省林业苗圃土壤养分状况评价

本文通过不同区域点位土壤测试。对吉林省林业苗圃土壤养分状况、酸碱反应进行了评价。根据已掌握的土壤肥力状况。指出科学施肥对改良苗圃土壤。特别是对改良养分含量较低、碱性较强的西部苗圃的土壤具有重要意义。