农民对农业水价承受能力研究

农民是农业水价承受的主体，其承受能力的大小决定着农业水价改革的力度和进程，通过对人民胜利渠道灌区农民对农业水价承受能力的调查:揭示了灌区的运行能力是随着农业水价的上调逐步增加的，而用水是逐步减少的;农民对农业水价改革的承受能力是非常有限的;当农业水费占到农民年收入的4%一6%(支出的6%一8%)、农业投入的10%-12%和产出的8%-10%时，农民普遍认为水价合理或者基本合理，表示可以接受、愿意缴纳，说明水费没有超出农民的经济和心理承受能力;提出了促进农业水价改革的综合对策。     

The impact of water price strategies on the allocation of irrigation water: the case of the Jordan Valley

This paper discusses the optimal water allocation and cropping patterns for the Jordan Valley, taking into consideration variations in expected incomes from agricultural production and rising water prices. The calculations were based on information available on water supplies, areas under irrigation and market conditions, and used linear programming models for determining solutions that maximize gross margins and minimize potential variations in these gross margins. The results indicated that optimizing cropping patterns and the allocation of irrigation water still has a substantial potential to increase the financial return from agriculture. Optimal solutions that consider risk from varying gross margins react quite elastically in terms of demand for irrigation water to rising water prices. This adds the element of a changing market supply to any discussion about managing water consumption between sectors of the society by using pricing mechanisms.     

农业水价改革情景中农户的节水意愿——基于河北省地下水超采区的实地调研

农业水价改革是黄淮海平原地下水压采的重要措施之一。基于河北省地下水超采综合治理区的实地调研,运用交叉分析法和二元Logistic模型分析了农业水价改革情景中农户节水意愿的影响因素。调查结果显示75.32%的农户在农业水价改革情景中没有节水意愿。研究结果表明年龄越大、家中有耕地参加休养生息政策的农户,在农业水价改革情景中的节水意愿越强;农户认为冬小麦春灌节水会导致小麦减产的程度越高,节水意愿越弱。因此得出推广农作物抗旱育种技术以及促进田间灌溉技术升级、加强农业节水宣传和培训、设计并实施系统和综合的农业水价改革三点政策含义。     

农业用水户的水费承受能力及其对农业水价改革的态度——来自云南和新疆灌区的实地调研

农业水价改革是调节农户灌溉行为,促进农业节水实现的重要政策工具。探讨农业用水户的实际水费承受能力及其对农业水价改革的反映对于制定合理的农业水价政策具有重要的意义。文章通过对新疆和云南144户农户入户调查问卷的分析,从家庭特征,水费支出情况、水费承受能力以及对水价浮动的反映等几个方面分析和探讨了农业用水户面对不同水价政策变动的态度和应对措施,认为农业用水户作为基本生产单位,其应对农业水价改革的决策行为是“理性的”和“利己的”,国家制定的相关政策只有在能够充分考虑到农户的实际反应是才能发挥最大的政策效应。     

Measuring the willingness of farmers to pay for groundwater in the highland areas of Jordan

The main objective of this paper is to estimate the willingness of farmers to pay for groundwater resources under different conditions of water supply regimes. Information available on water supplies, areas under irrigation and market conditions were the basis of the calculations. In order to identify solutions that maximize the total net income subject to resource restraints, parametric linear programming models were used to derive farmers’ willingness to pay for irrigation water. Results showed that there is potential to decrease water consumption and to reallocate it in an optimal way. Optimal reallocation increased the net agricultural income in the study area. The water demand for agriculture reacts to increasing water prices in a quite elastic manner over a long interval, whereas it reacts inelastic in the case of a decrease of the overall water supply by 15%. Farmers are willing to pay two and a half times the prevailing price of groundwater. The results show that the water values in the region are underestimated and the decision makers can impose a price level for groundwater from US$ 0.14 to 0.35/m³ without having any impact on the cropping pattern or the planted area.     

灌溉水价与灌区灌溉用水量关系研究

运用经济学理论分析了灌溉水价与灌区灌溉用水量的关系,根据2000—2009年对关中地区冯家山、羊毛湾、石堡川3个灌区的实际调查资料,对不同灌区建立农业灌溉用水需求函数,计算灌溉用水需求价格弹性。研究表明,关中地区3个灌区中,石堡川灌区弹性最高,为-1.11;冯家山灌区和羊毛湾灌区弹性分别为-0.47和-0.69,即灌溉水价提高1%,灌溉用水量将下降0.47%～1.11%。对于现行水价较低的灌区,水价调高对该灌区将产生明显的节水效应;对现行水价较高的灌区,水价继续调高。     

石家庄井灌区农户灌溉行为调查及节水潜力分析

农户作为农业用水的主体,对其灌溉行为的研究成为目前关注的焦点。通过对石家庄市井灌区农户的大量调研,总结了农户灌溉行为的多样性及农户间的差异性,对产生灌溉行为差异的影响因素进行了深入分析。结合长期试验获得的该地区冬小麦/夏玉米优化灌溉标准,与农户实际的多样灌溉制度进行对比,从农户灌溉行为的角度分析了该地区的节水潜力,为合理灌溉制度的制定及农业水资源的管理提供了依据。     

Adverse effect of waterlogging and soil salinity on crop and land productivity in northwest region of Haryana,India

In the irrigated areas of semi-arid regions, especially in northwest India, a considerable recharge to the groundwater leads to waterlogging and secondary salinization. In several sub-areas groundwater is mined, water tables fall, and salts are added to the root zone because a high proportion of irrigation water is derived from pumped groundwater of poor quality. Out of 1 million hectares of irrigation induced waterlogged saline area in northwest India, approximately half a million hectares are in the state of Haryana. Taking a homogenous physical environment as a starting point, the way and the extent to which farmers’ activities will affect the salinity and sodicity situation depend on farming and irrigation practices. In the past, soil salinity was mainly associated with high groundwater tables, which bring salts into the root zone through capillary rise when water is pumped. But nowadays, increasing exploitation of groundwater for irrigation purposes has led to declining groundwater tables and a threat of sodification and salinization due to use of poor quality groundwater. Farmers in northwest India are facing a situation in which they have to deal with salt volumes that are harmful for water uptake of crops. They are also facing the problem of sodicity, which has an adverse effect on the physical structure of the soil, causing problems of water intake, transfer and aeration. To mitigate the adverse effect of soil salinity on crop yield, the farmers irrigate frequently, either mixing canal water and groundwater, or alternately using canal water and groundwater. Due to differences in environmental parameters in the farming systems, such as groundwater quality, soil types and uneven distribution of irrigation water, income losses to the farming community are not uniform. This paper highlights the economic loss due to environmental degradation through the twin problems of waterlogging and soil salinity, which threaten the sustainability of agricultural production in Haryana state. Our analysis shows that the net present value of the damage due to waterlogging and salinity in Haryana is about Rs. 23,900/ha (in 1998–1999 constant prices). The estimated potential annual loss is about Rs. 1669 million (about US$ 37 million) from the waterlogged saline area. The major finding of the paper is that intensification per se is not the root cause of land degradation, but rather the policy environment that encouraged inappropriate land use and injudicious input use, especially excessive irrigation. Trade policies, output price policies and input subsidies all have contributed to the degradation of agricultural land.     

Irrigation in the Jordan Valley: Are water pricing policies overly optimistic?

Water is very scarce in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan. The development of both public irrigation in the Jordan Valley and private groundwater schemes in the highlands has diverted a large share of the country's water resources to agriculture. Many policy instruments have been used in the last 10 years to reallocate water to nonagricultural uses and encourage improvements in efficiency throughout the water sector. Demand management has been emphasized, with water pricing policies expected to instill conservation and motivate a shift toward higher-value crops. We examine the rationale for, and potential and current impact of, pricing policies in the Jordan Valley.We describe the likelihood of success of such policies in terms of operation and maintenance cost recovery, water savings and improved economic efficiency, and we explore some of the alternatives available for meeting these objectives. We show that while operation and maintenance (O&M) costs can be recovered higher water prices have limited potential for achieving gains in irrigation efficiency. The current system of quotas, the lack of storage, and technical difficulties experienced in the pressurized networks indicate that little water can be saved. More substantial increases in water prices can be expected to raise overall economic efficiency by motivating farmers to intensify cultivation, adopt higher-value crops, improve technology, or rent out their land to investors. Yet such strategies are constrained by lack of capital and credit, and pervasive risk, notably regarding marketing. Pricing policies, thus, are best implemented together with positive incentives that reduce capital and risk constraints, and offer attractive cropping alternatives or exit options with compensation.     

农田灌溉用水权有偿转让机制与农民受益研究

在对我国用水结构变化分析的基础上,对农田灌溉用水转移的潜力进行了调查分析。选择典型灌区,对农田灌溉用水权转让的基本原则、农业初始水权的界定、水权初始分配的程序、农业用水权的有偿转让条件、农业用水权的转让主体、转让的内容、农业用水转移的供水价格与供水年限等进行了研究。分析了政策环境对灌溉用水权有偿转让的影响,提出了依法保护灌溉用水权有偿转让过程中灌区管理部门和农民合法权益的具体措施。     

奎屯河灌区水资源管理模式探析

新疆奎屯河灌区是全国主要大型灌区之一，是灌区管理改革试点地区之一，对该灌区实行的政府计划和市场结合配置水资源的管理模式进行了有意义的实证研究，认为在这种形式下的水资源管理必须制定相应合理的水价体系,才能确保农户积极的节约用水,起到与建立水市场同样合理使用水资源的作用,同时建立水资源的合理核算机制也有利于缓解管理者与农户之间的矛盾.得到的分析结果对今后灌区的管理具有良好的参考价值.     

Modeling farm-level adoption of deficit irrigation using Positive Mathematical Programming

Irrigated agriculture in the European Union (EU) is currently adapting to new conditions including the principle of the full recovery of water service costs, the reduction of water availability and the increasing variability in the prices of agricultural products. This has fostered an increasing number of economic analyses to investigate farmers’ behaviour by means of mathematical programming techniques including Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) models.However PMP models generally consider only activities observed in the reference period even if, under new policies and market conditions, farmers can adopt irrigation techniques they have not used previously. In particular, under increasing water costs or decreasing water availability, farmers can introduce Deficit Irrigation (DI) techniques that might not have been profitable earlier.We propose an extension of the PMP approach to include DI techniques not observed in the reference period. These alternative techniques are identified by means of a crop growth model developed by the FAO. We apply our methodology to a Mediterranean area using three sets of simulations involving: increases in water costs, reductions in water availability, and changes in the prices of the products obtained from irrigated crops.Lacking observations of alternative irrigation techniques, our approach captures potential technology adjustments and assesses the impact of changes in water policy and market conditions in a better way.Simulation results show that increasing water costs do not motivate adoption of DI techniques. Rather, farmers are induced to save water by switching from full irrigation to deficit irrigation when water availability is reduced or the prices of irrigated crops are increased.     

漳河灌区节水灌溉影响分析

为了解决越来越严重的水资源危机，发展节水灌溉已经成为灌区越来越重要的任务。自改革开放以来，漳河灌区灌溉用水量有了大幅度下降，而农业生产总产量却有所上升。灌区通过节水灌溉，使得灌溉水分生产率不断提高，在保证农业生产总产量稳步提高的前提下节约灌溉用水。与此同时，将所节约的农业灌溉用水转移到如发电、城镇供水、工业用水等非农业用水部门，从而大大提高了单方水利用效益。这是我国开展节水灌溉较为成功的典范。通过研究漳河灌区节水灌溉的影响，寻求大型灌区真实节水的途径，使得有限的水资源得到更加充分、合理的利用。     

Position of the Australian horticultural industry with respect to the use of reclaimed water

Australia is the driest inhabited continent on earth, and pressure on its water resources is already high and increasing. Environmental, social, and economic drivers are forcing horticultural industries in Australia to reassess their use of freshwater resources. Reclaimed water is potentially a major resource for the horticultural industry. In general, however, there has been some apprehension towards using reclaimed water for irrigation, owing primarily to uncertainties related to agricultural sustainability and human health. Here, we consider the current standing of the Australian horticultural industry in terms of its preparedness to use reclaimed water for irrigation. We address issues related to policy, economics, market access, pragmatic directives (such as state and federal guidelines), environmental impact, agronomic sustainability, and public health. From these appraisals, we have attempted to summarise the major impediments to the use of reclaimed water by the Australian horticultural industry. These are: insufficient knowledge of impacts on market access; commitment to provide continuity of quality and supply to markets; implications of substitution of alternative water sources on security of supply; insufficient knowledge of food safety issues; inadequate understanding of consumer perceptions; and uncertainty about pricing of reclaimed water.     

Economic impacts on farm households due to water reallocation in China's Chaobai watershed

Our study area in the Chaobai watershed, upstream of Miyun Reservoir, has been undergoing agricultural water transfers to downstream municipal uses in Beijing. We examine the impacts of water reallocation on crop production and farmers’ income and discuss issues relating to current compensation mechanisms. We use data from a survey of 349 farm households and their farm plots in the upper Chaobai watershed within Hebei province. Water reallocation from upstream to downstream areas has reduced agricultural water supply and the area irrigated. Regression results show that in plots deprived of irrigation, maize yields decrease by 21% and crop revenues decline by 32%. On average, losing irrigation on one hectare of cultivated land reduces net crop income by 2422 yuan. We examine compensation arrangements and social equity for the major policies implemented in the region and we identify gaps between current compensation levels and farmers’ income and production losses. The current compensation received by farmers is generally lower than the losses incurred due to reduced irrigation. A more appropriate compensation mechanism is called for in future water transfers.     

The impact of water and agriculture policy scenarios on irrigated farming systems in Italy: An analysis based on farm level multi-attribute linear programming models

The objective of this paper is to evaluate the impacts of agriculture and water policy scenarios on the sustainability of selected irrigated farming systems in Italy, in the context of the forthcoming implementation of the directive EC 60/2000. Directive EC 60/2000 (Water Framework Directive) is intended to represent the reference norm regulating water use throughout Europe. Five main scenarios were developed reflecting aspects of agricultural policy, markets and technologies: Agenda 2000, world market, global sustainability, provincial agriculture and local community. These were combined with two water price levels, representing stylised scenarios for water policy. The effects of the scenarios on irrigated systems were simulated using multi-attribute linear programming models representing the reactions of the farms to external variables defined by each scenario. The output of the models consists of economic, social and environmental indicators aimed at quantifying the impact of the scenarios on different aspects of sustainability relevant for irrigated farming systems. Five Italian irrigated farming systems were considered: cereal, rice, fruit, vegetables and citrus. The results show the diversity of irrigated systems and the different effects that water pricing policy may produce depending on the agricultural policy, market and technological scenarios. They also highlight a clear trade-off between socio-economic sustainability and environmental (water, nitrogen, pesticide) sustainability. Water pricing will have, in most cases, less impact than agricultural markets and policy scenarios, though it appears to be an effective instrument for water regulation in the least intensive irrigated systems considered. This emphasises the need for a differentiated application of the Water Framework Directive at the local level as well as a more careful balance of water conservation, agricultural policy and rural development objectives.     

Policies to support economic and environmental goals at farm and regional scales: Outcomes for rice farmers in Southern India depend on their resource endowment

Improving water use and nitrogen efficiencies is of overall importance to society at large - to conserve scarce water resources and prevent environmental pollution. Efficient cultivation practices for rice which had no yield penalty were not adopted by farmers because of the open access to water free of charge. Well-chosen combinations of policy measures are thus needed to stimulate adoption of new cultivation practices. We developed a multi-objective linear programming (MGLP) model to explore the impact of: (i) modified rice cultivation including water-saving irrigation on farm profit; (ii) water pricing and water quota government policies on adoption of modified rice cultivation by farmers; (iii) a combination of (i) and (ii) to achieve the objectives of both farmers and society at large, and (iv) to study the trade-offs between income, water and nitrogen use. The analysis was carried out on four rice-based farm types for the state of Tamil Nadu, South India. Model results showed that observed farm profit of all four farm types could be increased using current practices simply by optimizing land use for specific crops. Adoption of modified rice cultivation further increased farm profit. Water-saving practices were selected only when water pricing was introduced. Farm profits were reduced even at low water prices but were compensated by farmers through adoption of modified rice cultivation. The combination of policies that stimulate adoption of modified rice cultivation was effective in achieving both increased farm income and water savings. The required water prices differed across farm types and seasons and impacted poor resource-endowed farmers the most. Providing water quotas could protect the poor resource-endowed farmers. The model helped to identify the optimal water price and water quota for each farm type to achieve both the objectives of farmers and society at large. Opportunities for reducing water use and avoiding environmental pollution at acceptable profits are available for all farm types, but need to be tailored to the farmers’ resource endowments.     

玛纳斯河灌区农户农业灌溉水价承受能力研究

从玛纳斯河灌区农户种植棉花平均生产成本和收入情况、水费占成本、收入的比例情况、农户可接受的灌溉水费占单位面积投入比例、农户对现行灌溉水价的评价及对水价构成的认识等方面进行了抽样调查.在此基础上对灌区农户灌溉水价的承受能力进行了分析,给出了该灌区农户水费承受能力指标及2006年该灌区农户可承受的平均终端灌溉水价为0.110 9元/m 3 .为该灌区制定农业灌溉水价改革政策、提高农业水资源利用效率等提供基础资料.     

Estimating the impacts of water pricing on smallholder irrigators in North West Province, South Africa

Worldwide growing water scarcity has increased the call for economic instruments to stimulate rational water use in agriculture. Furthermore, cost-recovery is now widely accepted as a cornerstone of sustainable water management. In many developing countries, where agricultural water use is often still subsidised, water pricing policies are developed for allocating water efficiently and achieving sustainability of water systems. However, the impacts of water pricing policies on irrigation water use and on farm production systems is mostly unknown. We introduce an innovative two-stage methodology that allows estimating these effects at farm level. Applying the method to small-scale irrigators in South Africa, we show that water demand is quite responsive even to small changes in water price. In addition, the introduction of a water price significantly decreases farm profit. This appears to be a problem primarily for the poorer farmers.     

转变下游引黄灌溉模式合理利用黄

为了促进黄河水资源的合理、高效开发利用，通过分析黄河下游引黄灌区现状灌溉模式存在的主要问题及日益短缺的黄河水资源供需供形势，提出了引黄灌溉的发展方向和应采取的主要措施，如：建立和完善科学合理的水价形成机制；建立“准水权”促进水权有偿转让和流动等。