藏鸡IGF-Ⅰ基因的SNPs检测及与生长性状的关联分析

通过PCR-RFLP技术对藏鸡和隐性白羽鸡类胰岛素生长因子-Ⅰ(IGF-Ⅰ)基因的5'非翻译区(UTR)的2个位点进行了多态性检测.检测结果显示,该基因具有HinfⅠ和PstⅠ多态现象.测序结果表明,HinfⅠ识别位点发生了A→C突变,PstI识别位点发生了C→T突变,从而在2群体中分别产生了3种基因型,而出现了8种单倍型组合.单倍型组合的X2检验结果表明,2个品种间存在极显著差异(P＜0.01).方差分析结果显示,品种对所分析的17个生长发育性状都有显著影响(P＜0.05或P＜0.01),性别对6个生长发育性状有显著影响(P＜0.05或P＜0.01),而基因型或单倍型组合对5个生长发育性状(初生重、2周龄体重和胫围、7周龄体斜长以及16周龄胫围)有显著影响(P＜0.05或P＜0.01).同时,基因型或单倍型组合与品种之间的互作对鸡的部分生长发育性状也有一定的影响.另外,基因型CT在鸡初生重和7周龄体斜长上显著(P＜0.05)或极显著地(P＜0.01)高于基因型CC和TT,而单倍型组合A+T/C+T在鸡初生重、2周龄体重和胫围以及16周龄胫围上显著(P＜0.05)或极显著地(P＜0.01)高于其它6种单倍型组合.     

郏县红牛CLPG基因的SNP及对生长发育性状的影响

利用PCR-SSCP检测了113头郏县红牛CLPG基因的SNP，发现了AA、AB、AC 3种基因型，测序结果显示AA型在第150和419碱基处分别表现为C和T，为野生型；AB型在第419处发生碱基T→C突变；AC型在第150处发生碱基C→T突变。多态信息含量为0．226，属低度多态。分析了不同基因型与部分生长发育性状的相关性，结果显示，AA、AC基因型个体在体重、体长指标上显著（P〈0．05）或极显著（P〈0．01）大于AB型个体；在管围指标上，AA基因型个体优于AB基因型个体，差异显著（P〈0．05）；在坐骨端宽指标上，AA与AB基因型个体之间差异显著（P〈0．05），AB与AC基因型个体间差异极显著（P〈0．01）。     

鸡apoB基因T123G多态位点与生长和体组成性状的相关性研究

载脂蛋白B（apoliprotein B，apoB）在能量的转运和代谢过程中具有重要作用，是研究生长和体组成性状的重要候选基因。以东北农业大学高、低腹脂双向选择品系第8世代仔鸡为试验材料，对鸡apoB基因进行SNP检测，探讨npoB基因与生长和体组成性状（尤其是体脂）的关系。本研究通过测序的方法在apoB基因26外显子上发现SNP（T→G），相关性研究结果表明该突变位点对1周龄体重、3周龄体重、7周龄腹脂重和腹脂率有显著影响（P〈0．05）。对于1周龄体重，基因型为GT的个体显著高于GG个体；而3周龄体重，基因型为TT和GT的个体显著高于GG个体；对于腹脂重和腹脂率，TT基因型个体显著高于GT和GG基因型个体（P〈0．05）。群体遗传学分析表明该位点的基因型在两系间差异显著（P〈0．05）。因此初步推断apoB基因可能是控制生长发育、腹脂沉积的主基因或与主基因紧密连锁。     

京海黄鸡IGF-Ⅱ基因SNPs及其与生产性能关系研究

以京海黄鸡为材料,采用PCR—SSCP技术测定IGF-Ⅱ基因3个SNPs位点,同时分析它们对不同周龄体重及产蛋性状的遗传效应。结果显示,3个位点分别发生C—G、G—C、G—A的单碱基突变,各检测到3种基因型,P1位点偏离Hardy-Weinberg平衡状态（P〈0．05）。最小二乘方差分析表明,AA与BB基因型个体300日龄产蛋数存在显著差异（P〈0．05）,A为增效等位基因,B为减效等位基因;CD基因型个体12周龄体质量显著高于CC型（P〈O．05）;EE、EF基因型个体300日龄平均蛋质量显著高于FF型（P〈0．05）,E为增效等位基因,F为减效等位基因。联合基因型AA／CC／EF平均蛋质量显著高于AB／cD／EE与AB／CD／EF（P〈0．05）;AB／CD／EF基因型个体300日龄体质量显著高于AA／CC／EF、BB／DD／EE型（P〈0．05）。     

鸡GDF-5基因外显子1多态性与鸡骨骼发育性状的相关研究

根据GenBank发表的鸡GDF-5基因的mRNA序列设计引物，以白耳鸡和东北农业大学选育的肉鸡高、低腹脂系第8世代鸡群为试验材料，通过测序和PCR-SSCP的方法进行SNP检测和基因型分析，探讨GDF5基因多态性与鸡生长和骨骼发育性状之间的关系。结果发现在GDF-5基因外显子1的84bp处存在1个C／T的突变位点，对该突变位点在研究群体中进行基因型分析，结果产生3种基因型，AA型个体的基因序列和GenBank（Accession No：AF123389）中的一致为C，而BB型个体的基因序列在84bp处突变为T。基因型与鸡体组成性状的统计分析结果表明，AA基因型个体的跖骨围显著高于AB基因型个体（P〈0．05）；AA基因型和AB基因型个体的跖爪重和跖爪率显著高于BB基因型个体（P〈0．05）；AB基因型个体的股骨长和股骨重显著高于BB基因型个体（P＜0．05）；表明该基因对鸡的骨骼性状有较大的影响或与控制骨骼发育性状的主效基因相连锁。     

鸡GH基因内含子1 MspⅠ位点多态性及其与生长及繁殖性状的相关性

以泰和乌骨鸡等6个江西地方鸡种和罗曼蛋鸡等2个商业鸡种为试验材料，采用PCR—RFLP技术，对鸡生长激素基因内含子1MspⅠ位点多态性及其与生长、繁殖性状的相关性开展研究。结果表明：（1）产蛋性能较高的品种中以C基因为主，生长较快的品种中A基因频率和C基因频率较接近，其它品种则以A基因为主；地方鸡种均以A基因为主，而外来鸡种均以C基因为主。（2）泰和乌骨鸡和万载康乐黄鸡均表现为杂合型个体有较迟的开产日龄（P〈0．05），产蛋数问均表现为差异不显著；在万载康乐黄鸡中，各基因型间开产蛋重表现为极显著差异（P〈0．01）。（3）与体重的相关分析结果显示，在宁都三黄鸡中，该位点仅对其母鸡1月龄体重影响差异极显著（P〈0．01），对公鸡及母鸡的其它各阶段影响均不显著（P〉0．05）；在万载康乐黄鸡中，8周龄体重表现为差异不显著（P〉0．05），12、18周龄时表现为差异极显著（P〈0．01）。（4）AA和BB型有较早的开产日龄，但在开产较早的鸡中并不是频率最大的基因型；在万载康乐黄鸡中，AB型有较大体重趋势，在宁都三黄鸡种中，以AA型有体重最大趋势，在生长较快的品种中它们也并不是频率最高的基因型。     

京海黄鸡MC4R基因多态性及其与生长性能的关联分析

研究以140只京海黄鸡为试验材料，以MC4R为候选基因，采用PCR-SSCP和DNA测序技术分析了MC4R基因在京海黄鸡群体中的多态性。结果表明：MC4R基因编辑区第662bp处有G→C碱基的点突变，在京海黄鸡中检测到AA、AB、BB3种基因型，A等位基因的频率为0．929．B等位基因的频率为0．071。经过基因型与生长性能的关联分析得知：不同基因型与京海黄鸡4、8、12周龄体重差异显著（P〈0．05），与16周龄体重差异极显著（P〈0．01）。由此推测，MC4R基因可能对于鸡生长性能具有很大的影响或与控制生长性能的主基因连锁。     

乳酸杆菌和中草药合生元添加剂对艾维因肉鸡生长性能影响的研究

试验以艾维因肉鸡为代表，研究乳酸杆菌与中草药合生元对1～35日龄艾维因肉鸡生长性能的影响。试验结果表明：合生元组在整个试验周期的平均体重均较对照组极显著提高（P〈0．01），但周增重和日增重仅在0～3周差异极显著（P〈0．01）。合生元组的周增重和日增重仅在第2周龄较乳酸杆菌组极显著提高（P〈0．01），在0～3周龄，均较乳酸杆菌组和中草药组差异显著（P〈0．05）或极显著（P〈0．01）。在料肉比方面，0～5周龄合生元组均比对照组、乳酸杆菌组、中草药组极显著降低（P〈0．01），但各周龄合生元组与乳酸杆菌组无明显差异（P〉0．05），合生元组与中草药组在3周龄和4周龄差异显著（P〈0．05）或极显著（P〈0．01）。     

Apo-AI基因多态性与鸡生长和体组成性状的相关研究

以明星肉鸡和丝毛乌骨鸡杂交产生的F2资源群体为试验材料，根据鸡载脂蛋白AI（Apo-AI）基因的5’端序列设计引物，采用测序和PCR—SSCP方法进行SNP检测和基因型分析，探讨Apo-AI基因多态性与鸡生长和体组成性状之间的关系。研究发现在Apo-AI基因序列起始密码子ATG上游163bp处存在一个A／T突变。该突变产生的不同基因型与鸡生长和体组成性状进行的统计分析结果表明，BB基因型个体的1、2周龄体质量显著高于AA和AB基因型个体的相应体质量（P〈0．05）；BB基因型个体腹脂质量显著高于AA基因型个体的腹脂质量（P〈0．05）；BB和AB基因型个体的腹脂率显著高：于AA基因型个体的腹脂率（P〈0．05）。可以尝试将Apo-AI基因应用于鸡生长和腹脂性状的分子标记辅助选择育种方案中。     

鸡CAST基因编码区的单核苷酸多态与肌纤维性状的相关研究

为了探讨CAST基因作为影响鸡肌肉嫩度性状候选基因的可能性,本研究以四川大恒家禽育种有限公司培育的优质鸡新品系为试验材料,采用PCR-SSCP方法对鸡钙蛋白酶抑制蛋白（Calpastatin,CAST）基因的部分编码区进行单核苷酸多态性（SNPs）检测。结果发现了1个多态性位点（G—T）,且在试验鸡群中检测出AA、BB和AB3种基因型。利用SAS（8．01）软件统计分析了3种基因型与优质鸡肌纤维性状的相关性。结果表明：CAST基因的多态性对鸡肌纤维密度和直径有着显著的影响（P〈0．05）,同日龄鸡群AA型个体的肌纤维密度高于AB型、肌纤维直径低于AB型,且均达到显著水平（P〈0．05）,而AA与BB型、BB与AB型间差异不显著（P〉0．05）;同体重鸡群BB型个体的肌纤维密度高于AB型、肌纤维直径低于AB型,且均达到显著水平（P〈0．05）,而AA与BB型、AA与AB型间差异不显著（P〉0．05）。试验结果提示：CAST基因对鸡肌纤维性状具有重要作用,推测可以利用该位点对鸡肌肉嫩度性状进行标记辅助选择。     

白术、微米白术和白术多糖对断奶仔猪生长性能和肠道形态及微生态区系的影响

试验选用96头平均体重14.82 kg左右的杜×长×大断奶仔猪,随机分成4组,每组3栏,每栏8头(公母各半)。对照组饲喂基础日粮,试验1、2、3组分别添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖和1%微米白术。试验期30 d。结果表明:在生长性能方面,与对照组相比,1%微米白术添加组可显著提高日增重(P0.05)、降低饲料增重比和腹泻率,而且效果优于1%80目白术组和0.2%白术多糖组,在肠道形态和肠道微生态区系方面,与对照组相比,日粮添加1%80目白术、0.2%白术多糖、1%微米白术均可不同程度的提高十二指肠和空肠的绒毛高度,加深十二指肠和空肠的隐窝深度,并且增加肠道微生态区系的多样性,其中以1%微米白术添加组的效果最佳。     

Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia

Sissay, M.M., Uggla, A. and Waller, P.J., XXXX. Prevalence and seasonal incidence of nematode parasites and fluke infections of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia. Tropical Animal Health and Production, XXXX. A 2-year abattoir survey was carried out to determine the prevalence, abundance and seasonal incidence of gastro-intestinal (GI) nematodes and trematodes (flukes) of sheep and goats in the semi-arid zone of eastern Ethiopia. During May 2003 to April 2005, viscera including liver, lungs and GI tracts were collected from 655 sheep and 632 goats slaughtered at 4 abattoirs located in the towns of Haramaya, Harar, Dire Dawa and Jijiga in eastern Ethiopia. All animals were raised in the farming areas located within the community boundaries for each town. Collected materials were transported within 24 h to the parasitology laboratory of Haramaya University for immediate processing. Thirteen species belonging to 9 genera of GI nematodes (Haemonchus contortus, Trichostrongylus axei, T. colubriformis, T. vitrinus, Nematodirus filicollis, N. spathiger, Oesophagostomum columbianum, O. venulosum, Strongyloides papillosus, Bunostomum trigonocephalum, Trichuris ovis, Cooperia curticei and Chabertia ovina), and 4 species belonging to 3 genera of trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, F. gigantica, Paramphistomum {Calicohoron} microbothrium and Dicrocoelium dendriticum) were recorded in both sheep and goats. All animals in this investigation were infected with multiple species to varying degrees. The mean burdens of adult nematodes were generally moderate in both sheep and goats and showed patterns of seasonal abundance that corresponded with the bi-modal annual rainfall pattern, with highest burdens around the middle of the rainy season. In both sheep and goats there were significant differences in the mean worm burdens and abundance of the different nematode species between the four geographic locations, with worm burdens in the Haramaya and Harar areas greater than those observed in the Dire Dawa and Jijiga locations. Similar seasonal variations were also observed in the prevalence of flukes. But there were no significant differences in the prevalence of each fluke species between the four locations. Overall, the results showed that Haemonchus, Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus, Oesophagostomum, Fasciola and Paramphistomum species were the most abundant helminth parasites of sheep and goats in eastern Ethiopia.     

Phase I evaluation of CCNU (lomustine) in tumor-bearing cats

1-(2-Chloroethyl)3-cyclohexyl-1-nitrosourea (CCNU) is an alkylating agent in the nitrosourea subclass. A prospective evaluation of CCNU was done to determine the maximally tolerated dosage of CCNU in tumor-bearing cats. Response data were obtained when available. Twenty-five cats were treated with CCNU at a dosage of 50-60 mg/m3 body surface area. Complete hematologic data were available for 13 cats. Neutropenia was the acute dose-limiting toxicity. The median neutrophil count at the nadir was 1,000 cells/microL (mean, 2,433 cells/microL; range, 0-9,694 cells/microL). The time of neutrophil nadir was variable, occurring 7-28 days after treatment, and counts sometimes did not return to normal for up to 14 days after the nadir. Based on these findings, a 6-week dosing interval and weekly hematologic monitoring after the 1st treatment with CCNU are recommended. The nadir of the platelet count may occur 14-21 days after treatment. The median platelet count at the nadir was 43,500 cells/microL. No gastrointestinal, renal, or hepatic toxicities were observed after a single CCNU treatment, and additional studies to evaluate the potential for cumulative toxicity should be performed. Five cats with lymphoma and 1 cat with mast cell tumor had measurable responses to CCNU. Phase II studies to evaluate antitumor activity should be completed with a dosing regimen of 50-60 mg/m3 every 6 weeks.     

Y‐chromosomal variation of local goat breeds of Turkey close to the domestication centre

Genetic variations in chromosome Y are enabling researchers to identify paternal lineages, which are informative for introgressions and migrations. In this study, the male‐specific region markers, sex‐determining region‐Y (SRY), amelogenin (AMELY) and zinc finger (ZFY) were analysed in seven Turkish native goat breeds, Angora, Kilis, Hair, Honaml?, Norduz, Gürcü and Abaza. A SNP in the ZFY gene defined a new haplotype Y2C. All domestic haplogroups originate from Capra aegagrus, while the finding of Y1A, Y1B, Y2A and Y2C in 32, 4, 126 and 2 Turkish domestic goats, respectively, appears to indicate a predomestic origin of the major haplotypes. The occurrence of four haplotypes in the Hair goat and, in contrast, a frequency of 96% of Y1A in the Kilis breed illustrate that Y‐chromosomal variants have a more breed‐dependent distribution than mitochondrial or autosomal DNA. This probably reflects male founder effects, but a role in adaptation cannot be excluded.     

Prevalence of gastric lesions in racing Alaskan sled dogs

Human and equine athletes are reported to have a high prevalence of gastric disease, and anecdotal evidence suggests a similar phenomenon applies to racing sled dogs. To investigate the prevalence of gastric disease in racing sled dogs, we conducted 2 gastroscopy studies on dogs competing in the annual Iditarod Sled Dog Race. A pilot study of dogs that were either dropped from the 2000 Iditarod Sled Dog Race because of illness or that finished the race indicated that, approximately 5 days after competing, 10 of 28 dogs (35%) had endoscopic evidence of gastric ulceration, erosion, or hemorrhage. The next year, an endoscopic study of 73 dogs participating in the 2001 Iditarod race was performed in order to evaluate a larger population of dogs. Data from 70 of these dogs could be used; 34 (48.5%) had ulceration, erosion, gastric hemorrhage, or some combination of these findings. When this group of 70 dogs was compared retrospectively to a control group of 87 dogs presented to the Texas A&M University (TAMU) Veterinary Medical Teaching Hospital, the Iditarod sled dogs had a significantly higher prevalence (P = .049) of gastric lesions. These findings suggest that, similar to athletes of other species, elite canine athletes have an increased prevalence of gastric disease compared to the canine population at large.     

Furosemide continuous rate infusion in the horse: evaluation of enhanced efficacy and reduced side effects

Continuous rate infusion (CRI) of furosemide in humans is considered superior to intermittent administration (IA). This study examined whether furosemide CRI, compared with IA, would increase diuretic efficacy with decreased fluid and electrolyte fluctuations and activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) in the horse. Five mares were used in a crossover-design study. During a 24-hour period, each horse received a total of 3 mg/kg furosemide by either CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h preceded by a loading dose of 0.12 mg/kg IV) or IA (1 mg/kg IV q8h). There was not a statistically significant difference in urine volume over 24 hours between methods; however, urine volume was significantly greater after CRI compared with IA during the first 8 hours ([median 25th percentile, 75th percentile]: 9.6 L [8.9, 14.4] for CRI versus 5.9 L [5.3, 6.0] for IA). CRI produced a more uniform urine flow, decreased fluctuations in plasma volume, and suppressed renal concentrating ability throughout the infusion period. Potassium, Ca, and Cl excretion was greater during CRI than IA (1,133 mmol [1.110, 1,229] versus 764 mmol [709, 904], 102.7 mmol [96.0, 117.2] versus 73.3 mmol [65.0, 73.5], and 1,776 mmol [1,657, 2.378] versus 1,596 mmol [1,457, 1,767], respectively). Elimination half-lives of furosemide were 1.35 and 0.47 hours for CRI and IA, respectively. The area under the excretion rate curve was 1,285.7 and 184.2 mL x mg/mL for CRI and IA, respectively. Furosemide CRI (0.12 mg/kg/h) for 8 hours, preceded by a loading dose (0.12 mg/kg), is recommended when profound diuresis is needed acutely in horses.     

Feline intracranial neoplasia: retrospective review of 160 cases (1985-2001)

The purpose of this study was to determine the frequency of different tumor types within a large cohort of cats with intracranial neoplasia and to attempt to correlate signalment, tumor size and location, and survival time for each tumor. Medical records of 160 cats with confirmed intracranial neoplasia evaluated between 1985 and 2001 were reviewed. Parameters evaluated included age, sex, breed, FeLV/FIV status, clinical signs, duration of signs, number of tumors, tumor location(s), imaging results, treatment, survival times, and histopathologic diagnosis. Most of the cats were older (11.3 +/- 3.8 years). Primary tumors accounted for 70.6% of cases. Metastasis and direct extension of secondary tumors accounted for only 5.6 and 3.8% of cases, respectively. Twelve cats (7.5%) had 2 or more discrete tumors of the same type, whereas 16 cats (10.0%) had 2 different types of intracranial tumors. The most common tumor types were meningioma (n = 93, 58.1%), lymphoma (n = 23, 14.4%), pituitary tumors (n = 14, 8.8%), and gliomas (n = 12, 7.5%). The most common neurological signs were altered consciousness (n = 42, 26.2%), circling (n = 36, 22.5%), and seizures (n = 36, 22.5%). Cats without specific neurological signs were common (n = 34, 21.2%). The tumor was considered an incidental finding in 30 (18.8%) cats. In addition to expected relationships (eg, meninges and meningioma, pituitary and pituitary tumors), we found that lesion location was predictive of tumor type with diffuse cerebral or brainstem involvement predictive of lymphoma and third ventricle involvement predictive of meningioma.     

The Epidemiology of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Dairy Cattle in Central Kenya

The epidemiology of H. placei and of other gastrointestinal nematodes in yearling dairy cattle was examined on two farms in Kiambu District, central Kenya during each of 13 one-month periods from April 1993 to April 1994. On each farm, 32 newly weaned dairy calves were given a single dose of albendazole and then placed on experimental pastures. Twelve of the animals were designated for bi-monthly slaughter (n = 2) and analysis of worm population characteristics and 20 were designated for blood and faecal collection and for weighing. Two parasite-free tracer calves were grazed alongside the weaner calves each month throughout the study period and were also slaughtered for analysis of worm populations. Faecal egg counts, haematological and serum pepsinogen determinations, herbage larval counts, and animal live weight changes were recorded monthly. The study revealed that Haemonchus placei, Trichostrongylus axei, Cooperia spp. and Oesophagostomum radiatum were responsible for parasitic gastroenteritis and that H. placei was the predominant nematode present in the young cattle on both farms. Faecal egg counts from resident cattle and necropsy worm counts revealed that pasture larval levels were directly related to the amount of rainfall. The total worm burdens in the animals were highest during the rainy season (March–June and October–December) and lowest during the dry seasons (July–September and January–February). The very low recovery of immature larvae of H. placei from the tracer calves indicated that arrested development is not a feature of the life cycle of this parasite in central Kenya. The maintenance of the parasite population depended on continuous cycling of infection between the host and the pasture. The agroclimatic conditions of the study area were such that, in general, favourable weather conditions for the development and survival of the free-living stages of gastrointestinal nematodes existed all year round.     

Diversity of Ectoparasites in Sheep Flocks in Sa~o Paulo,Brazil

The occurrence of ectoparasites in sheep flocks is frequently reported but seldom quantified. Sheep production used to be a predominantly family activity in the state of Sa~o Paulo (Brazil), but it began to become a commercial activity in the past decade. Thus, information about the ectoparasites existing in sheep flocks has become necessary. The present data were obtained by means of questionnaires sent to all sheep breeders belonging to the `Associaça~o Paulista de Criadores de Ovinos' (ASPACO; Sa~o Paulo State Association of Sheep Breeders). Response reliability was tested by means of random visits paid to 10.6% of the respondents. Most of the properties (89.5%) reported the presence of one or more ectoparasites. Screw-worm (Cochliomyia hominivorax) was the most frequent ectoparasite (72.5%), followed by bot fly larvae (Dermatobia hominis, 45.0%), ticks (Amblyomma cajennense) and Boophilus microplus, 31.3%) and finally lice (Damalinia ovis, 13.8%). Combined infestations also occurred, the most common one being screw-worm with bot fly larvae (36.0%) followed by bot fly larvae with ticks (13.9%), screw-worm with ticks (9.3%), bot fly larvae with lice (6.9%), and ticks with lice (5.0%). The most common triple combination was screw-worm, bot fly larvae and ticks (12.8%). Breeds raised for meat or wool were attacked by bot fly larvae and ticks more often than other breeds. Lice were only absent from animals of indigenous breeds. The relationships among these ectoparasites are discussed in terms of sheep breeds, flock size, seasonality and the ectoparasitic combinations on the host.     

A brief history of the prevention of infectious diseases by immunisations

Infectious diseases have always been a terrible scourge for humans. The appearance of these plagues, as they were called without distinction, was generally connected to various conditions: asters, climatic changes or religious reasons. The concept of contagious, and then infectious, diseases came slowly. Variolation, i.e. transmission of ‘virulent’ matter to induce a natural disease and the immunity against it, was brought from Constantinople to England by Lady Montague, in 1721. This ‘variolation’ technique was also often performed in veterinary medicine against diseases like sheep-pox or pleuropneumonia. As ‘vaccination’ is the term generally accepted for ‘immunisation’, variolation can be the word designating such a technique. The second period of the history of immunisation began, in 1880, with the studies of Pasteur and his collaborators. A great number of bacterial vaccines were developed: dead, live but attenuated or only parts of pathogens. The viruses were produced in animals, then in eggs and at last, in tissue cultures. Second generation vaccines appeared with genetic engineering: recombinant vaccines, vector vaccines, nucleic acids vaccines, and markers vaccines, among others. These novel technologies can permit the development of new ones and improve the quality of the vaccines already existing.