Stage of development affects penetration of calcium chloride into apple fruits

Using young fruits or fruit segments, rates of penetration of ⁴⁵CaCl₂ across apple fruit cuticles (Malus x domestica) were studied during fruit development in two consecutive years (’?Golden Delicious’ in 2000, ’?Cox Orange Pippin’ and ’?Boskoop’ in 2001). The aqueous donor solutions contained 5 g l^—1 CaCl₂ and 0.2 g l^—1 Glucopon 215 CSUP as wetter. A droplet (5 μl) was applied to each fruit disc and allowed to dry within 1 h. Amounts penetrated were estimated immediately after droplet drying (0 h) and after 6 and 24 h penetration, respectively. Temperature during penetration was 20 ?C and 100 % humidity was maintained throughout the experiment, once the droplet had dried. Rates of penetration were greatly affected by the stage of fruit development. With all varieties tested, highest rates were measured during the early stages of fruit development (before June drop) when approx. 100 % of the CaCl₂ applied penetrated within 24 h. After June drop, when trichomes had vanished and most stomata developed into lenticels, penetration rates decreased rapidly and large variability among the samples developed. This pattern was similar with all three varieties. The involvement of trichomes, stomata, and lenticels as preferential sites of penetration of calcium chloride across the apple fruit cuticles is discussed. Using a model calculation, it is argued that ten or more spray applications are needed to significantly increase calcium contents of apples. This has two causes: Only a small fraction of the spray liquid is intercepted by the fruits, and penetration can be rather slow.     

Diversity and population dynamics of Penicillium spp. on apples in pre- and postharvest environments: consequences for decay development

Isolates of Penicillium spp. were collected regularly from 2001 to 2003 from the surfaces of apple fruit pre- and postharvest, and from the atmosphere of orchards and storage rooms in France. Penicillium spp. were not detected from the atmosphere of conventional orchards, while their density did not exceed 50 spores m⁻³ in the atmosphere of organically managed orchards. Penicillium spp. were seldom detected on apple surfaces in the orchard. The density of Penicillium on apples increased from 10 to 50 spores cm⁻² after 1 month in storage to 300–400 spores cm⁻² after 6 months. The level of airborne Penicillium increased by up to 2 × 10⁴ and 2·5 × 10³ spores m⁻³ within nondisinfected and previously disinfected warehouses, respectively. Penicillium expansum (30–62%) and P. solitum (6–45%) were the most prevalent species on apple or in storage rooms. Other species of Penicillium isolated included P. commune, P. verrucosum, P. chrysogenum, P. rugulosum and P. digitatum. Apple fruit were also surveyed for wounds and the number of open lenticels using the sulphur dioxide test. The incidence of wounding at harvest varied from 12 to 36%, depending on cultivar and locality. When apples were inoculated at harvest by either aqueous or aerial inoculum of P. expansum, the decay incidence was constantly higher than the incidence of wounding. The number of open lenticels per cm² of apple surface varied from 0·5 on cv. Boskoop to 4·4 on cv. Golden Delicious. An average of 13 and 2·1% of lenticels, respectively, were infected when they were inoculated by P. expansum and P. verrucosum. Cultivars of apple fruit that showed a greater number of open lenticels, combined with a large diameter varying from 100 to 200 µm, were more susceptible to P. expansum.     

Mixing calcium chloride with commercial fungicide formulations results in very slow penetration of calcium into apple fruits

Foliar applications of calcium salts are usually combined with fungicides. In the years 2002 and 2003, it was tested if this practice assures high rates of penetration of calcium. Amounts that penetrated in 24 h were measured at 20 °C using ⁴⁵CaCl₂. To ensure maximum penetration rates, humidity was maintained at 100 %. Sample size was 40 to 50 fruits, and data were presented as box plots because distribution of data was not normal. Median rates of penetration of CaCl₂, measured with mixtures of fungicides and CaCl₂ at 5 or 10 g l^–1, respectively, were very slow, and amounted to only a few percent of the dose applied. Rates were a little higher with very young fruits (55 days after full bloom, DAFB). Adding alkyl polyglycoside surfactants at 0.2 g l^–1 significantly decreased surface tensions, and increased rates of penetration by up to 15‐fold. Still, total penetration of CaCl₂ rarely exceeded 20 % of the dose applied (median penetration), even in the presence of an additional surfactant. In all treatments, outliers with 60 to 100 % penetration in 24 h occurred, and this was attributed to penetration into lenticels. This is expected to result in unequal concentrations of calcium in fruits, especially in the sub‐epidermal layers. Addition of a suitable surfactant to mixtures of fungicides with CaCl₂ is strongly recommended as it enhances wetting and greatly increases penetration rates of CaCl₂.     

栓皮栎软木的夹砂和夹杂构造特征与化学组分分析

【目的】研究栓皮栎软木中的杂质与纯软木的不同,以有效去除软木中的夹砂和夹杂。【方法】以陕西产栓皮栎软木为材料,分析其杂质的结构及主要化学成分的质量分数,并与纯软木细胞进行比较。【结果】夹砂的细胞排列紧密,细胞壁较厚,为白色,细胞腔内充有白色物质,其木栓脂、纤维素和木质素的质量分数分别为1.65%,28.57%和26.31%;夹杂的细胞整体上排列比较疏松,细胞间隙发达,其木栓脂、纤维素和木质素的质量分数分别为2.20%,23.61%和24.32%;纯软木细胞为充满空气的薄壁细胞,相邻细胞交错排列,且排列紧密,无细胞间隙,似蜂窝状,其木栓脂、纤维素和木质素的质量分数分别为38.93%,7.89%和21.64%。【结论】栓皮栎软木中夹砂和夹杂与纯软木细胞的结构、主要化学成分的质量分数均不同,因而性能也不同。纤维素和木质素的质量分数高,木栓脂的质量分数低,是软木杂质硬而脆、弹性小的主要原因。     

淹水胁迫下北美鹅掌楸幼苗形态和生长的响应

为探索不同家系北美鹅掌楸的耐淹性差异,采用盆栽苗模拟淹水法对Louis（L）,Kent（K）和Penn（P）3个家系的2年生幼苗进行处理,研究皮孔、膝根、绿叶等指标的变化情况。结果表明：膝根形成是北美鹅掌楸淹水胁迫的应激反应,同一家系随胁迫水位高度的增加膝根长度和粗度分别呈增长和增粗的趋势,不同家系膝根生长量存在差异,L家系膝根最长、最细,P家系增粗最快,K家系居中;通气组织皮孔的形成增高了北美鹅掌楸的耐淹性,皮孔数L家系＞K家系＞P家系;在淹水条件下植株表现为枯死及绿叶数减少,其中K家系绿叶数最多,不同家系表现存在差异;水中穿孔根的生长提高了地上/地下部分比值,增加吸氧表面积而提高耐淹性能,是一种应激反应。3个家系耐淹性强弱依次为L家系＞K家系＞P家系,膝根长度和皮孔数量与北美鹅掌楸耐水能力直接相关。