Allozymes and growth habit of Aegilops tauschii: genetic control and linkage patterns

Aegilops tauschii line of spring type growth habit with theearliest heading among all the VIR world germplasm collection of thisspecies was crossed with three Ae. tauschii lines of winter type growthhabit with low, intermediate and the highest vernalization requirement. 12enzyme loci were involved in genetic analysis. The growth habit was foundto be encoded by single codominant major gene, Vrn-D2. Thefollowing linkages were found: Est5 – Nadhd2 in chromosome 3, Vrn-D2 – Aco2 – Cat2 and Pgm – Nadhd1 in chromosome 4, Est2 – Got2 in chromosome 6.     

Levels and distribution of allozyme and RAPD variation in populations of Elymus fibrosus (Schrenk) Tzvel. (Poaceae)

To study the magnitude and nature of genetic variation in E. fibrosus, the levels and distribution of allozyme and RAPD variations were investigated in populations collected from Finland and Russia. The results obtained from the allozyme and RAPD studies were compared to each other in 10 of the populations. The allozyme analysis showed that 6 of 12 presumed loci (50%) were polymorphic within the species, while the mean number of polymorphic loci within populations was 4.8%. The mean number of allele per locus for the species was 1.5 and 1.05 across the populations. Genetic diversity at the species level was low (H _es = 0.025), and the mean population genetic diversity was even lower (H _ep = 0.007). Both these values were much lower than the average for other Elymus and self-fertilising species. The largest proportion of the total allozyme diversity was found among, rather than within the populations (G _ST = 0.70). The allozyme genetic distances between the populations did not reflect geographic distances. Cluster and principal coordinates analyses revealed the same allozyme relationship patterns among the populations. A comparison of allozyme and RAPD variation in 10 of the populations showed differences in the amount of genetic variation. The RAPD analysis revealed higher levels of variation (A _p = 1.19, P _p = 20.3 and H _ep = 0.09) than the allozyme one) A _p = 1.06, P _p = 5.8 and H _ep = 0.008). For both markers, the largest proportion of the total gene diversity was found among the populations studied (G _st = 0.63 for RAPDs and G _st = 0.65 for allozyme). In contrast to the allozyme analysis, the RAPD based genetic distances did reflect geographic distances. The cluster and principal coordinates analyses showed different grouping of populations for each data set. There was a positive, but not significant, correlation (r = 0.41) between the genetic distance matrices resulting from these markers. Regional comparison revealed that the Finnish populations had a higher diversity than the Russian ones. Generally, this study indicates that E. fibrosus contains low genetic variation in its populations. The results are discussed in the context of conservation of the species.     

Preliminary study of genetic diversity in Swedish flax (Linum usitatissimum)

To investigate the genetic diversity of Linum usitatissimumL. in Sweden, 18 accessions, including 13 cultivars and five landraces, were analysed. This study was based on genetic variation in three enzyme systems (i.e., PGD, GPI and MDH) by using horizontal starch gel electrophoresis. The total genetic diversity of the studied flax material was very high (H _T= 0.62). Even though the highest genetic diversity lies within the accessions (G _ST= 0.07), a clear differentiation between fibre and oil flax was found with respect to three polymorphic loci (Pgd-1, Gpi-2 and Mdh-1). A phenogram, based on Nei's genetic distances between the accessions studied, showed five clearly defined groups but with low variation within the groups. The unexpected high genetic diversity found within accessions in the studied flax material may indicate that flax is more outbreeding than earlier believed.     

Genetic basis of phenotypic differences between transplanted stocks of brown trout

Abstract– We present results from an experiment testing for the existence of genetically based phenotypic differences among populations of brown trout ( Salmo trutta L.) born and raised under entirely natural environmental conditions. Genetically tagged individuals from two stocks (A and B) were introduced into a drainage system in Sweden previously void of brown trout, and the first generation (F₁) progeny were sampled from two lakes during nine consecutive years. Phenotypic differences among groups of progeny (A, B, and the AB hybrid) are expected to reflect genetically determined dissimilarities between the introduced stocks. Phenotypic differences among progeny groups were observed for age at maturity and for migratory and reproductive behavior, and these characters are apparently determined by genetic factors to an extent that permit their detection even in the presence of confounding and naturally occurring sources of variation such as lake, age, cohort and year of sampling. There was also significant variation among offspring groups with respect to body size (length), but only a small proportion of the total variation in size could be attributed to stock differences. These genetically based stock characteristics may represent local adaptations, and the fishery management implications of these findings are discussed.     

Genetic diversity—seeing the forest through the trees

Forest trees, populations, races, species, and taxonomic groups above the species level display rich variation in biochemical markers. The variation stems from inherited modifications that trace back in time, through converging ancestries, towards common progenitors. Past movements of continents, mountain building events, and climate changes isolated forest populations one from another and provided critical challenges to the lineages that survived to the present day. A wealth of molecular variants in forest trees characterize these widely-distributed, large, long-lived, outbreeding, organisms. Forest trees have an abundance of rare variants and over one third of all the alleles (different forms of one gene) occur only rarely ( < 2% frequency) in a few trees of a species sample. Those rare alleles may either represent new variation or persistent forms of genes that have low adaptive value under present conditions. From another perspective, however, the largest share of genetic variation in forest trees is due to the presence of multiple alleles found at intermediate frequencies for only a small percentage of all the genes, and those alleles are commonly widespread throughout species areas. These common alleles may mark genes that track historical events in lineages or mark genes with adaptive significance in present populations. Evidence from enzyme studies supports the conclusion that highly comparable functional genes are common to different forest taxa. Future research will be toward understanding the phenotypic expression of particular genes and revealing the relative importance of genetic variants to adaptation and growth.     

The Northern Ireland Phytophthora infestans population 1998–2002 characterized by genotypic and phenotypic markers

A total of 204 isolates of Phytophthora infestans from Northern Ireland, almost all from commercial potato crops, were collected over 5 years (1998–2002). Phenotypic diversity was assessed using mating type and metalaxyl resistance; genotypic diversity was assessed using two allozyme loci (glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, Gpi, and peptidase, Pep ), mitochondrial DNA haplotype and the multilocus RFLP probe RG57. All isolates were A1 mating type and Gpi 100/100 . The majority were Pep 100/100 , but four Pep 83/100 and six Pep 96/100 isolates were identified. Three mtDNA haplotypes were detected; haplotype IIa was the most common, but each year up to 2001 its frequency declined, with a concomitant increase in Ia isolates. Three isolates had the rare haplotype IIb, but this was only detected in 1998. Metalaxyl resistance and mtDNA haplotype were markedly associated: most haplotype Ia isolates were metalaxyl-resistant, whereas haplotype IIa was more commonly associated with metalaxyl sensitivity. Analysis of a subsample of 91 isolates revealed nine RG57 genotypes, three associated exclusively with haplotype IIa and six exclusively with haplotype Ia. The most common RG57 genotype (51% of isolates) comprised both metalaxyl-resistant and -sensitive haplotype IIa isolates. However, of haplotype Ia isolates, all metalaxyl-resistant phenotypes belonged to one of four RG57 types, one of which was the second most frequent overall (29% of isolates), while all metalaxyl-sensitive isolates belonged to one of two other types. The P. infestans population in Northern Ireland appears to consist of a limited number of clones related to, but differentiated from, the populations in mainland Britain and elsewhere in Europe.     

Characterisation of Isolates of Phytophthora infestans From Hungary

A total of 36 single-lesion isolates were collected from 9 crops of potato and 13 of tomato in different regions of Hungary in the past decade, particularly in 1998. These were analysed for mating type, sensitivity to metalaxyl, allozyme genotype at glucose-6-phosphate isomerase and peptidase loci and genotype at 24 loci detected using the multilocus RFLP probe RG57. The ratios of the mating types A1 to A2 were 8:9 and 4:15 among isolates recovered from potato and tomato, respectively. Resistance to metalaxyl was found more frequently among isolates from potato and in the A1 mating type. The populations were not clearly differentiated on the basis of host origin. All isolates were homozygous (100/100) at the locus for glucose-6-phosphate isomerase. Unlike in other European countries, the most common peptidase allele was 96. Genotypes at the peptidase locus were 96/96 (50%), 96/100 (27.7%) and 100/100 (16.6%). In addition, one isolate from 1993 and another from 1998, were defined as 83/96, a genotype that had not been described elsewhere. The 18 RG57 fingerprints that were observed among 36 isolates, with one exception, seem to be unique to Europe. On the basis of combined genotypic traits, 20 multilocus genotypes were designated. These data, which reveal a remarkable variability with unique genotypes of the late blight pathogen, suggest that migration and sexual and/or asexual recombination have a role in the recent evolution of the pathogen in Hungary.     

Phylogenetic relationships in grey mullets (Mugilidae) in a Tunisian lagoon

The Mugilidae family is an important fish group representing a major source for fisheries and aquaculture. In the south Mediterranean bank, no data are available on this fauna, except for some morphological studies on Tunisian samples. In this study, 16 allozymic loci were used to investigate the phylogenetic relationships within Tunisian mugilids. The results obtained from Hergla lagoon samples highlight five operational taxonomic unit corresponding to the well‐known species (Liza aurata, Liza ramada, Liza saliens, Chelon labrosus, Mugil cephalus). Several loci appeared to be diagnostic of these species, but in contrast to Greek mugilid samples, we did not find any diagnostic locus fixed differently for the five species. These results can help aquaculture units to identify accurately the mullet species they subsequently use for stocking aquaculture ponds and inland waters. However, species identity represents very important information, as each species has a different growth rate and salinity tolerance. On the other hand, when compared with North Mediterranean Mugilidae analysed until now, Tunisian samples show a genetic differentiation that could be related to different physicochemical conditions between the North and South banks, similar to those recorded in the eastern and western two Mediterranean basins separated by the Siculo‐Tunisian strait. In addition, this study confirms the morphological taxonomy, except for the subdivision of the Liza genus into two sub‐genera. The phylogenetic tree is in agreement with that on Languedoc Mugilidae samples (France), indicating that the subdivision of the Liza genus into two sub‐genera appears to be without any genetic base.     

The use of allozymes at three life stages influences genetic variation analysis and clustering in Cicer arietinum germplasm collections

Levels of genetic variation using 6 enzyme systems for a total of 11 interpretable loci were examined in chickpea (Cicer arietinum) originating from 9locations in Bangladesh. The measurement of genetic variation at enzyme loci was carried out on the seed embryo, on the early leaves of seedlings and on the mature leaves at the vegetative stage. A total of 592individuals, including 240 seeds, 200 seedlings and152 mature leaves were investigated. Using electrophoretic data, chickpea was found to express higher percentages of polymorphic loci at the seed stage (36–64%) than at seedling (22–56%) or the vegetative stage (11–44%). The proportion of mean number of alleles and the average mean observed heterozygosity also were higher at the seed stage when compared to the seedling and vegetative stages. Unique alleles were absent, and only differences infrequencies could be noticed. Positive values of the fixation index were noted for pgm-1 and 6pg-1 for all stages and in both mnr loci for the seed embryo's. A trend towards lower genetic distances of all possible pairs of populations could be observed when comparing those of seed embryo's with seedlings or mature leaves. This trend was even more pronounced when pooling the data of 9 populations into their 3regions. Slight differences in genetic distances caused a separative clustering of population 3 at seed embryo, of population 2 at seedling and of population5 at vegetative stages. It is suggested that careful examination of enzyme polymorphisms at different developmental stages is a prerequisite before drawing conclusions on the genetic distance between germplasm collections from different origins since small differences in the data entry for clustering results in ties that may affect tree topologies. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Identification of some Populus deltoides Marsh. x P. nigra L. clones,developed in North America,with the aid of allozymes

Summary Horizontal starch gel electrophoresis was done to assay 10 enzyme systems in root tips of 14 Populus deltoides x P. nigra clones developed by controlled hybridization and selected in North America, and some clones sharing one or both parents. The genotypes of the clones were determined for 31 loci coding for 10 enzyme systems. The interclonal allozyme variability was controlled by 12 loci. Each of the 14 clones had unique 12-locus genotypes, thus could be distinguished from each other. The clones differed from each other on an average of 4.2 loci. The first two Principal Components from Principal Component Analysis of the clonal allozyme genotype data accounted for 48% of the total variation in the 12 variant loci. 6-Pgd-3, Per-2, 6-Pgd-1, Aco-1 and Per-1 were found to be the most discriminating loci for the clones. The ordination of the clones on Principal Component axes 1 and 2 was in general agreement with the origin of the clones.