Appraisal of the sustainability of dairy goat systems in Southern Spain according to their degree of intensification

This investigation aims to classify, describe and evaluate the sustainability of dairy goat production systems (GPS) in South Spain Sierra de Cadiz. The research took place throughout 25 goat farms during the 2001–2002 campaigns, with the method posed by Masera et al. (1999) [Masera, O., Astier, M., S., López-Ridaura. 1999. Sustentabilidad y manejo de recursos naturales. El marco de evaluación MESMIS (Sustainability and natural resource management. The MESMIS evaluation framework). Mundi-Prensa, S.A., Gira, IE-UNAM, México. 109 pp.] and adapted to animal production systems, as the guideline and framework to evaluate sustainability.

The principal component, namely energy input from grazing (eigenvalue 1.329) which comprises the indicators total area per goat (factorial value 0.664) together with net energy obtained from grazing (factorial value 0.903) allowed to differentiate significantly between semi extensive (SES), semi intensive (SIS) and intensive (IS) goat production systems.

Intensification of the GPS tends to be inefficient, especially in terms of net margin per litre of milk produced (p < 0.05). A higher degree of adaptability of IS (64.8%) derives from a higher investment on new production strategies. Likewise, higher self-management capacity of SES (60.9%) fosters standards of productivity (76.0%) and stability (42.9%). The SIS presented the highest equity values (67.8%).

On the whole, sustainability of GPS tends to decrease as the degree of intensification increases: SES = 57.3%; SIS = 55.7% and IS = 53.1%. The reduction of the dependency on external input alongside with the optimization of natural resources management would surely improve the standard of sustainability.     

A comparison of dairy cattle systems in an irrigated perimeter and in a suburban region: case study from Morocco

Multivariate analyses were used to compare dairy production practices and their consequences on milk yield and profitability in cattle farms from two representative regions of Morocco. A regular follow-up of 118 farms (48 in the Rabat-Salé suburban belt and 70 in the Gharb irrigated perimeter) was undertaken to obtain accurate data. Results show significant differences between the two regions. Intensive milk production was more frequent in the suburban zone (more concentrates and better annual milk yield per cow). When conducting a “within-region” principal components analysis, farms’ discrimination appeared to take into account all management variables (feeding, cattle sales, profitability), with no reference to farms’ structural parameters (arable land and number of cattle). A typology of farms was then established using cluster analysis, with 4 distinct groups, namely: a) concentrates wasters, b) farms with a relatively important milk yield per cow, c) deficit dairy farms and d) beef oriented farms. The last group included almost exclusively farms from the irrigated perimeter (5 out of 7). These results indicate that dairy production promotion in Morocco requires more than just the intensification of forage production, but should focus also on improving management practices. The extension of complete and balanced dairy rations is urgently needed to enhance milk yield and profitability.     

Describing management attitudes to guide forest policy implementation

Forest policy in Denmark aims to increase the environmental values of forests. For policy implementation it is essential to know how to motivate private owners. Based on a survey among private forest owners in Denmark, four types of owners have been identified, clustered according to their forest management attitudes and practices: (1) the production-oriented owner, (2) the classic forest owner, (3) the environmental/recreational owner, and (4) the indifferent forest owner. Owners in Clusters 1 and 2 are mainly motivated by financial and wood production aspects, whereas owners in Cluster 3 are to a greater extent motivated by environmental and recreational aspects. Cluster 4 is the least motivated cluster. For effective policy intervention, the clusters should be addressed by different means. Owners in Clusters 1 and 2 should be met on their agricultural-production logic, Cluster 3 on their interest to improve environmental values, whereas owners in Cluster 4 might mainly be interested in passive nature management solutions.     

基于神话传说的中国古典园林空间结构“法式”探讨

以类型学和模式语言为理论,从神话传说入手,总结了中国古典园林空间结构基本单元的特征,提出了中国古典园林空间结构的3种模式:"一池一山"、"一池三岛"和"围合与豁口",解读了中国古典园林空间结构的多样性与复杂性。     

Choosing the most representative technical management routes within diverse management practices: Application to vineyards in the Loire Valley for environmental and quality assessment

Diversity of agricultural systems can be described at different scales in terms of three main types of variables: technical management of cropping systems, farming systems and food supply chains. We focus on the diversity of technical management routes (TMRs), defined as logical successions of technical options (TOs) designed by the farmers. The study, comparison and assessment of this great diversity of complex routes are impossible with classical agronomic experiments or exhaustive assessments such as life cycle assessment (LCA). Hence, the selection of representative cases is necessary. Multidimensional data analysis methods permit the characterization of a diversity of TMRs and the construction of typologies but do not allow the consideration of the specific associations of TOs constituting the various TMRs.The aim of this paper is threefold: (i) to propose a new combined method, “Typ-iti”, to classify the field TMRs of farmers, to identify key TO associations and to select the most relevant cases for study; (ii) to test this method on vineyard management diversity using a panel of vineyard fields of Loire Valley producers; and (iii) to discuss the capability of the proposed Typ-iti method for use in the characterization and selection of cases of other agricultural systems at diverse scales.The example developed in this paper is the selection of vineyard management cases for grape LCA combined with grape quality evaluation. The cases were selected to represent the regional diversity of management practices. A detailed on-farm survey of management methods was performed on a diverse range of wine production estates in the Middle Loire Valley. The Typ-iti method was constructed and implemented on the survey database. It combines a multidimensional analysis of qualitative survey data and typology and partitioning (clustering) associated with data mining methods (frequent pattern mining search and association rules).The surveyed sample was partitioned into 5 types of management practices, 2 of which were organic and 3 conventional. The partitioning was driven primarily by choices involving pest management and floor management. Each type was characterized by specific TOs, specific associations of TOs and remarkable TMRs. The cases were chosen on the basis of these 3 parameters.The Typ-iti method can be applied to other crops and at different scales; the only limitation is the availability of precise information on the practices used by farmers in their fields.     

Factors driving growers’ selection and implementation of an apple crop protection strategy at the farm level

While protecting their crops, apple growers must also satisfy the requirements of their buyers regarding pesticide residues and fruit characteristics. Based on an analysis of farm pesticide application schedules and semi-structured interviews of 35 apple growers in two areas of France, this study described how growers designed and implemented their apple protection strategies, and identified the factors which helped and/or prevented them from using less pesticide. Different combinations of economic and environmental concerns led to three main protection strategies. Growers implementing the bio-ecological strategy (S1) had high environmental concerns, used no synthetic pesticides, and compensated their lower yields with high selling prices. Growers implementing the combined strategy (S2) had moderate environmental concerns. They planted scab-resistant varieties and sprayed natural products, while diversifying their outlets and cultivars to compensate for low selling prices. The low risk strategy (S3) was implemented by growers from cooperatives with low environmental concerns who aimed for high yields and visual quality by using mainly synthetic pesticides. S2 and S3 growers were constrained by low selling prices and by the increased workload and economic risks represented by alternative methods. Extending the range of alternatives to pesticides and implementing innovative advice methodologies could be levers to reduce pesticide use.     

Stakeholder participation for environmental management: A literature review

The complex and dynamic nature of environmental problems requires flexible and transparent decision-making that embraces a diversity of knowledges and values. For this reason, stakeholder participation in environmental decision-making has been increasingly sought and embedded into national and international policy. Although many benefits have been claimed for participation, disillusionment has grown amongst practitioners and stakeholders who have felt let down when these claims are not realised. This review first traces the development of participatory approaches in different disciplinary and geographical contexts, and reviews typologies that can be used to categorise and select participatory methods. It then reviews evidence for normative and pragmatic benefits of participation, and evaluates limitations and drawbacks. Although few of the claims that are made have been tested, there is evidence that stakeholder participation can enhance the quality of environmental decisions by considering more comprehensive information inputs. However, the quality of decisions made through stakeholder participation is strongly dependant on the nature of the process leading to them. Eight features of best practice participation are then identified from a Grounded Theory Analysis of the literature. These features emphasise the need to replace a “tool-kit” approach, which emphasises selecting the relevant tools for the job, with an approach that emphasises participation as a process. It is argued that stakeholder participation needs to be underpinned by a philosophy that emphasises empowerment, equity, trust and learning. Where relevant, participation should be considered as early as possible and throughout the process, representing relevant stakeholders systematically. The process needs to have clear objectives from the outset, and should not overlook the need for highly skilled facilitation. Local and scientific knowledges can be integrated to provide a more comprehensive understanding of complex and dynamic socio-ecological systems and processes. Such knowledge can also be used to evaluate the appropriateness of potential technical and local solutions to environmental problems. Finally, it is argued that to overcome many of its limitations, stakeholder participation must be institutionalised, creating organisational cultures that can facilitate processes where goals are negotiated and outcomes are necessarily uncertain. In this light, participatory processes may seem very risky, but there is growing evidence that if well designed, these perceived risks may be well worth taking. The review concludes by identifying future research needs.     

Non-industrial private-forest owners: possibilities for increasing adoption of close-to-nature forest management

The concept of close-to-nature management combines an economic use of forests with nature conservation. Today, this compromise between central interests in forest management is seen as an appropriate model for the majority of the forestland in Germany. In attempting to implement the concept nationwide, the category of privately owned forests, which make up 46% of Germanys forested area, has received increasing political attention. The adoption of close-to-nature forestry practices within private forests is difficult to describe due to exceedingly diverse owner-specific factors. Applying a socio-psychological behavioural model that combines the theory of planned behaviour, the cultural theory and the modernisation theory, this article presents an analysis of how non-industrial private-forest (NIPF) owners in the Black Forest region of Germany assess and implement close-to-nature forestry practices. The study is based on a written survey of approximately 900 randomly selected owners of forestlands ranging in size from 0.1–200 ha. The main factors identified that affect the adoption of close-to-nature forestry practices include perceptions of forest conditions and of opportunities to influence these conditions as well as the influences of social surroundings on the forest owners. Owners were classified into three types based on multiple characteristic features: economically interested, conceptually interested, and uninterested forest owners. Based on these results, opportunities to encourage NIPF owners to use close-to-nature forestry practices were explored.

A trait-based typification of urban forests as nature-based solutions

Urban forests as nature-based solutions (UF-NBS) are important tools for climate change adaptation and sustainable development. However, achieving both effective and sustainable UF-NBS solutions requires diverse knowledge. This includes knowledge on UF-NBS implementation, on the assessment of their environmental impacts in diverse spatial contexts, and on their management for the long-term safeguarding of delivered benefits. A successful integration of such bodies of knowledge demands a systematic understanding of UF-NBS. To achieve such an understanding, this paper presents a conceptual UF-NBS model obtained through a semantic, trait-based modelling approach. This conceptual model is subsequently implemented as an extendible, re-usable and interoperable ontology. In so doing, a formal, trait-based vocabulary on UF-NBS is created, that allows expressing spatial, morphological, physical, functional, and institutional UF-NBS properties for their typification and a subsequent integration of further knowledge and data. Thereby, ways forward are opened for a more systematic UF-NBS impact assessment, management, and decision-making.