Analysis of genetic diversity in Portuguese Ceratonia siliqua L. cultivars using RAPD and AFLP markers

Although carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is of great economic importance little is still known about the pattern of genetic variation within this species. Morphological characteristics based on 31 fruit and seeds of continuous characters determinant for agro-industrial uses, were compared with RAPD and AFLP markers for assessing genetic distances in 68 accessions of carob trees, from different cultivars, varieties and eco-geographic regions of Algarve. Eighteen selected RAPD primers applied to the 68 accessions produced a total of 235 fragments ranging from 200 to 2000 bp, of which 93 (40%) were polymorphic. Four AFLP selective primer combinations generated a total of 346 amplification fragments of which 110 were polymorphic. The average level of polymorphism based on four primer combinations was 31.8%. The phenetic trees based on RAPD and AFLP analyses gave high co-phenetic correlation values, and were found to be consistent in general with the analysis of morphological data, carried out on the same accessions. A number of RAPD and AFLP markers were found to be diagnostic for ‘Canela’ cultivar and 13 wild ungrafted trees.     

Effect of nucleotides and carob pulp on gut health and performance of weanling piglets

Nucleotides and carob pulp were tested as possible alternatives to antimicrobial growth promoters for newly weaned pigs. Four dietary treatments were used: basal diet, nucleotides, carob pulp and nucleotides + carob pulp. Performance was measured in a group of 72 pigs. Another group of 60 pigs was used for histological measurements of the jejunal mucosa and microbiological measurements by RFLP in ileum and caecum at different post-weaning intervals. Treatment did not affect performance. On the other hand, the morphology parameters of the jejunum were significantly (P < 0.001) affected by day after-weaning. No effects (P > 0.05) of treatment were observed on these parameters. The similarity (intra and inter-group) of the intestinal microbiota decreased with day after-weaning (P < 0.001) and was also affected by dietary treatment (P < 0.05). The nucleotide diets had the highest similarities in the ileum whereas the carob pulp diets had the lowest in the caecum. It is concluded that both nucleotides and carob pulp are able to modulate the changes in microbiota composition after weaning and that whereas nucleotides act in the ileum, carob pulp acts in the caecum.     

Lipid evaluation of cultivated and wild carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) seed oil growing in Turkey

Studies were carried out on the oil content, fatty acids, tocopherols and sterols in the seeds of two carobs (Ceratonia siliqua), cultivated and wild, from Turkey. The oil yields of cultivated and wild carob seeds were established as 1.73 and 1.82% on a dry weight basis, respectively. The main fatty acids in cultivated and wild carob seed oils are linoleic (49.1% and 51.0%), oleic (30.4% and 26.5%), palmitic (10.3% and 12.0%) and stearic (3.5% and 4.6%), respectively. Tocopherols and phytosterols are important constituents of the unsaponifiable fraction of several seed oils. The major tocopherol in both seed oils was γ-tocopherol. The composition (mg/100 g) was as follows α-tocopherol (69.06 and 70.39 mg/100 g), P8 (22.29 and 24.78 mg/100 g), δ-tocopherol (8.70 and 10.66 mg/100 g), β-tocopherol (2.30 and 1.85 mg/100 g). The total tocopherol contents had 208.45 and 223.14 mg/100 g, respectively. The total content of sterols of both oils were determined as 16400.94 and 30191.55 mg/kg, with β-sitosterol as the predominant sterol that accounted for more than 70% of the total amount of sterols other sterols, campesterol (5.33–5.32%), stigmasterol (0.58–11.43%) 7-avenasterol (3.45–3.03%), 7-stigmasterol (2.16–2.4%), and chlerosterol (1.33–1.0%) were detected in both carob oils. As a result, the accurate quantification of these analyses has very important applications for the nutrition sciences.     

Physical and chemical characterization of Ceratonia siliqua L. germplasm in Turkey

Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is natively grown in the coastal areas of the Aegean and Mediterranean region in Turkey. The main carob growing areas (Mediterranean and Aegean) were surveyed and a total 70 promising wild and grafted carob genotypes were selected based on physical and chemical pod properties. Preliminary results showed that Turkey has very rich carob genetic resources containing considerable variations for most of the pod traits. In general, wild carob had smaller pods than the grafted ones. Pod mass ranged from 29.16 g to 120.28 g in the wild genotypes and 71.71 g to 147.91 g in the grafted genotypes with an average 107.61 g for the grafted and 63.72 g for the wild genotypes. The average pod dimensions (width, length and thickness) were 18.16 mm, 16.18 cm and 6.42 mm for the wild genotypes and 21.79 mm, 16.91 cm and 8.79 mm for the grafted genotypes. The average soluble solid content ranged from 59.42% in the wild and 64.06% in the grafted genotypes. The average total acidity of the wild and grafted genotypes was similar (0.78%). The pod traits of the wild genotypes differ significantly from those of the grafted genotypes, and the wild genotypes showed higher variations in these traits compared to the grafted genotypes.     

Efficacy of mating disruption technique against carob moth,Apomyelois ceratoniae Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in pomegranate orchards in Southeast Turkey (Şanlıurfa)

Carob moth, Apomyelois (=Ectomyelois) ceratoniae Zeller (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) is a key pest in pomegranate orchards in Southeast of Turkey. The pest causes significant damage and reduces marketability of fruits, and is difficult to control with insecticides. Therefore, it is imperative to develop environmentally sound effective alternative management approaches. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the mating disruption technique and determine the appropriate application dose for the management of the pest. The study was carried out in Central and Suruç districts of ?anl?urfa province (Turkey) in 2011 and 2012. SPLAT EC (Specialized Pheromone-Lure Application Technology) trade named dispenser containing 2% Z7, E9-11-dodecatrienyl formate pheromone mimic was applied at 500, 625 and 750 g/ha in three pomegranate orchards in each district. Results indicated that mating disruption technique significantly reduced the pest populations. But effectiveness of the method was less in terms of the damage rate on fruits. Pheromone applied at 500 g/ha was not effective. However, application at 625 g/ha reduced the pest populations to an acceptable level. Thus, the concentration could be considered an appropriate dose for the less abundant pest population within integrated pest management while higher population would require combining the mating disruption method with a bio-insecticide.     

Variability in the pod and seed parameters and nuclear DNA content of Tunisian populations of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ceratonia siliqua</Emphasis> L.

The carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is widely used in arid and semi-arid areas of Mediterranean countries for industrial, agricultural and ornamental purposes. We wished to determine the variability of its morphological parameters in relation to its exploitation for commercial purposes. Thirteen cultivated and 15 spontaneous populations of C. siliqua from various edapho-climatic zones of Tunisia were compared to determine the variation in pod and seed parameters, for trees growing in situ, and in 2C nuclear DNA content (determined by flow cytometry), for seedlings grown from seeds collected in situ. Analysis of variance showed significant differences (P < 0.0001) between sites for fresh weight, length, width, internal and external thickness of pods, the pod length/width ratio, percentage of viable seeds and seed fresh weight. The mean pod fresh weights (range 8.63–36.03 g) of cultivated C. siliqua were significantly greater than those of spontaneous trees (7.70–19.39). Similarly, for other morphological characters (pod length, width and thickness and seed weight), the cultivated trees showed the highest mean values: 19.46 cm, 2.22 cm, 0.91 cm and 0.20 g, respectively. How this variability could be exploited for agronomic and commercial purposes is discussed. The variation of the examined morphological characters was not correlated with the quantity of DNA, since there were no significant differences in nuclear DNA content among the cultivated or spontaneous individuals. The mean 2C nuclear DNA content was 1.20–1.30 pg, indicating the trees to be diploid (2n = 24).     

温室豆角枯萎病的综合防治技术研究．

介绍了豆角枯萎病的病原、症状、传播途径，并综述了其防治方法。     

Mathematical approach of structural and textural properties of gluten free bread enriched with carob flour

In this study, gluten free breads (GFBs) made from rice and carob flour in different proportions were investigated. Water added changed in response to the carob amount. Structural and textural parameters of the samples such as porosity, crumb grain characteristics, firmness and relative elasticity of crumb, were measured. Simple mathematical models were developed to correlate the measured properties with carob flour and water content. The simplest and most convenient mathematical model developed was a power model, indicating that water influence on GFBs characteristics was more pronounced than that of carob flour. Carob flour addition enhanced the protein, fiber and minerals amount of the produced samples, and improved their functional properties as well, when water amount used was adequate. GFBs with a ratio of carob flour/water 10/110, 15/130 and 15/140 presented higher quality, in terms of dough proofing, porosity, crumb firmness and viscoelasticity.     

Evaluation of fruit and seed diversity and characterization of carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) cultivars in Algarve region

The genetic diversity of 15 carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) cultivars located in an experimental field from Algarve (Portugal) was evaluated over 7 years using 12 fruit and seed phenotypic characters, in order to characterize carob cultivars. The values of morphological traits obtained by cultivar were compared with those from other countries of the Mediterranean basin. Statistically significant differences were found between cultivars for all characters which were examined, what indicates a high genetic diversity. The relationship among these characters was analyzed by principal component analysis (PCA) resulting in the separation of these cultivars classed in four groups (clusters I–IV) and in four ungrouped cultivars. A three dimension of the model was found to be significant and explained 74.5% of the total variation, in which the first component accounting for 34.6% of the total variation is dominated by fruit characters, while the second component is dominated by seed characters. Cultivars plotted on the left-lower quadrant on the space determined by principal components 1 and 2 are characterized by fruits with high seed yield more appropriated for industrial rentability. The correlation analyses established by cultivar provided a specific understanding about the way how fruit and seed characteristics correlate within each cultivar. This approach can be useful for the development of a breeding programme, aiming to increase the seed yield, seed thickness, individual and total seed weight by fruit, characteristics that are determinant to improve the industrial exploitation of carob.     

Genetic Diversity in Tunisian Ceratonia siliqua L. (Caesalpinioideae) Natural Populations

The last two centuries witnessed the human-caused fragmentation of Tunisian Ceratonia siliqua L. (Caesalpinoideae) populations which were often represented by scattered individuals. Seventeen populations growing in four bioclimatic zones: sub-humid, upper semi-arid, mean semi-arid and lower semi-arid zones, were sampled for allozyme diversity to assess their genetic diversity and structuration using eight isozymes revealed by starch gel electrophoresis. The species showed high diversity within populations. The average number of alleles per polymorphic locus was 1.98, the percentage of polymorphic loci was 83.4% and the mean observed heterozygosity (Ho) and expected heterozygosity (He) under Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium were respectively 0.247 and 0.316. A substantial level of inbreeding within populations induced by Wahlund effect, was observed (F_IS = 0.231). High diversity resulted from the great number of genotypes in the ancestral population before fragmentation, favoured by the outbreeding of the species. High differentiation and low gene flow were detected among populations (F_ST = 0.200) and among pairs of ecological zones (0.113< F_ST <0.198). However, the differentiation coefficient of the four zones was low (F_ST = 0.085) and similar to the average F_ST for forest trees. Population structuration depends on geographic distance between sites rather than bioclimate, indicating that structuration has occurred slowly and that climatic conditions have had little effect. Nei's genetic distances (D) between populations were low and ranged from 0.004 to 0.201. Mean D value for all population was 0.087. The UPGMA clustering established for all populations through Nei's genetic distances did not clearly show that, for the majority of populations, grouping had resulted from ecological factors or geographic location. The substantial differentiation and the high genetic similarities between populations indicate that populations have been recently isolated as a result of anthropic pressure. In-situ conservation strategies must first focus on populations with a high level of genetic diversity and rare alleles. Appropriate conservation action should take account of bioclimatic zones. Ex-situ preservation should be based on a maximum number of individuals collected within populations in each ecological group and their propagation in different bioclimates by means of cuttings.