Current situation and the development of the dairy industry in Jordan,Saudi Arabia,and Syria

The development of the dairy industry plays an important role in the economy of Middle Eastern countries. Judged by its growth rate, the dairy industry is viewed as one of the most progressive food industries in the Middle East. During the early 1970s, countries established executive programs to promote dairy farming; the major objective was to attain self-sufficiency in milk production. A massive investment was set up for importing top class cattle, complying with top industry operating standards, and a simultaneous introduction of the latest technology in processing, packaging, and distributing. Milk production has grown tremendously at rates of 6.6% and 4.9% in Syria and Saudi Arabia, respectively, between 2002 and 2007, which resulted in these nations being almost self-sufficient. Regarding Jordan, milk production has not yet met this target. An excessive growth in the dairy industry is quite noticeable in this region with an expanding capacity for exports. The aim of this study is to show the most recent trends and future prospects of the dairy industries in Syria, Saudi Arabia, and Jordan. It also attempts to investigate the drivers for the development of milk production, consumption, and trade in the region.     

Getting Trees Into Farmers’ Fields: Success of Rural Nurseries in Distributing High Quality Planting Material in Cameroon

Availability of high quality tree planting material within proximity of farmers and at affordable prices is one of the prerequisites for larger uptake of tree cultivation. This study examines whether rural small-scale nurseries can produce a diversity of tree planting material and whether resource-poor farmers have access to it. Twelve nurseries supported by the tree domestication program in the West and North-west regions of Cameroon were compared to 12 nurseries in similar conditions, but not in contact with the program. Nurseries using the domestication approach were found to provide tree planting material that responds better to farmers’ needs in terms of quantities, species and propagation methods used. Their clientele is more diverse including farmers from the communities where the nurseries are located, but also from far beyond. However, prices of vegetatively propagated material were considered the most prohibitive factor. It is concluded that tree planting initiatives should refocus efforts towards technical training and business support to small-scale nurseries to increase efficiency. Research efforts should look for ways of reducing production costs and improving nursery productivity.     

Evidence that subsistence farmers have domesticated indigenous fruits (Dacryodes edulis and Irvingia gabonensis) in Cameroon and Nigeria

Ten fruit and kernel traits were measured in 152 Irvingia gabonensis and 293 Dacryodes edulis trees from 6 villages in Cameroon and Nigeria. Frequency distribution curves were used to examine the range of variation of each trait of each species in each village and aggregated into national and regional populations. There were differences between the village sub-populations, with regard to the normality (e.g., mean kernel mass of D. edulis) or skewness (e.g., mean flesh depth of D. edulis) of the distribution curves and in the degree of separation between the individual village populations along the x axis, resulting in the development of a bimodal distribution in the regional population. For all traits, populations of both species differed significantly between countries, but only in D. edulis were there significant differences between the Cameroon populations. On the basis of the results of this study, D. edulis can be said to be virtually wild in Nigeria but semi-domesticated in Cameroon, while I. gabonensis is wild in Cameroon and semi-domesticated in Nigeria. These results are discussed with regard to a hypothesis that the range and frequency of variation in the different populations can be used to identify five stages of domestication. From a comparison of the frequency distribution curves of desirable versus undesirable traits, and statistically identifyable changes in skewness and kurtosis, it is concluded that as a result of the farmers’ own efforts by truncated selection, D. edulis is between Stages 2 and 3 of domestication (with a 67% relative gain in flesh depth) in Cameroon, while I. gabonensis in Nigeria is at Stage 2 (with a 44% relative gain in flesh depth). In this study, genetic diversity seems to have been increased, and not reduced, by domestication. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Assessing the Quality of Seedlings in Small-scale Nurseries in the Highlands of Cameroon: The Use of Growth Characteristics and Quality Thresholds as Indicators

In developing countries seedlings are often produced in small-scale nurseries as a means to raise tree planting materials and, provided they are of high quality, these can form the basis for successful forest plantation initiatives. This study uses morphological characteristics to assess the quality of seedlings of three tree species (Persea americana, Cola acuminata and Dacryodes edulis) in the Western Highlands of Cameroon. The growth characteristics and quality indicators of seedlings produced in two nursery categories were compared—three nurseries collaborating with the tree domestication program implemented by the World Agroforestry Centre (Category 1) and three nurseries collaborating with government and non-governmental projects (Category 2). Seedlings produced in nurseries in the first nursery category were found to be uniform in terms of growth characteristics and quality indicators. In the second category, there were relatively higher seedling proportions having measured parameters out of threshold standards for root to shoot ratio and for sturdiness quotient. Significant differences between nursery categories (at α = 0.05) were detected in root collar diameter of C. acuminata and D. edulis and in shoot dry weight of D. edulis. These differences could be attributed to better nursery management as a results of training and technical backstopping received by nursery operators in Category 1. The level of experience of nursery operators in both categories was found to be insufficient and greater exposure to skills and knowledge could enhance the production of high quality seedlings.     

Impact of management interventions on smallholder dairy farms of the western highlands of cameroon

A study was carried out to evaluate the impact of interventions to solve constraints in smallholder dairy farms of the Western Highlands of Cameroon. The interventions consisted of improved breeding through introduction of artificial insemination, better feed supplementation, farmers training in milk processing and better veterinary services. Results show that there was a decrease in average monthly expenditures of 18% relative to the month before interventions started. Much of the expenditures were related to feed (38% of all costs). There was an overall increase in farm income. Close to 2/3 of the income were derived from milk products from home processed milk and culled animals. Only 7% income came from milk sold to the processing plant. The partial budget shows that before interventions, farmers lost $4.5/cow/month but gained $38/cow/month because of the interventions. The return was 2.32 and included opportunity income for milk home consumed and shared. When this opportunity income was ignored, the return stood at 1.93. The positive impact of interventions led to poverty alleviation and some farmers acquired more cows. A spill over effect is that more crop farmers are willing to be engaged at least partially in dairy farming. It will be good if many more farmers could benefit from these interventions.     

Policy and Legal Frameworks Governing Trees: Incentives or Disincentives for Smallholder Tree Planting Decisions in Cameroon?

Agroforestry and planting trees on farmers’ fields have been reported as important elements in a strategy to meet the millennium development goals of poverty reduction and climate change improvement. However, their uptake seems to be constrained by factors both internal and external to the household and related to the policy and legislative environment. This paper examines the impact of these factors on farmers’ decisions to plant trees. Cameroon is used as a case to analyse whether existing policies and legislation governing trees support or discourage tree planting, using qualitative content analyses. Although their mission papers and statements suggest most national government policies in Cameroon address tree planting and agroforestry, actual legislation designed to follow up the policies mostly contradicts the poverty reduction goals. Often legislation and regulations are more conservation-oriented and do not provide a clear procedure to distinguish between products from trees found in the wild and those gathered from farmers’ fields.     

Effects of pre-severance irradiance on the growth of Allanblackia floribunda Oliv. stockplants and on the subsequent rooting capacity of leafy stem cuttings

New Forests - The rooting of Allanblackia stem cuttings is typically slow and with the formation of very few roots. Irradiance has positive effects on the relative growth of plants and rooting...     

Domestication of Irvingia gabonensis: 1. Phenotypic variation in fruits and kernels in two populations from Cameroon

Twenty four fruits from each of 52 Irvingia gabonensis trees from two villages (Nko'ovos II and Elig Nkouma) of the humid lowland forest zone of Cameroon (West Africa) were assessed to determine the extent of variation in ten fruit, nut (endocarp), and kernel (cotyledon) characteristics. Highly significant differences were found in fruit length (Range = 46.2 to 77.3 mm), fruit width (45.1 to 72.5 mm), flesh (mesocarp) depth (11.2 to 21.8 mm), fruit mass (44.5 to 195.4 g), kernel mass (0.54 to 6.9 g) and shell mass (5.4 to 18.6 g). In each of these traits there was continuous variation. Differences were also observed in fruit taste and fibrosity. The most frequent skin and flesh color was yellow (Methuen Color Code 4A8). Mean fruit length, fruit width, fruit mass, shell mass and kernel mass differed significantly between villages, but did not differ between different landuses (homegardens, cocoa farms, crop fields or fallows). These results represent the first quantitative assessment of tree-to-tree variation in fruit traits for this species and are discussed with regard to the domestication potential of I. gabonensis.This revised version was published online in November 2005 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Soil water regime under rotational fallow and alternating hedgerows on an Ultisol in southern Cameroon

Soil moisture depletion during dry seasons by planted hedgerows to lower levels than under natural fallow, would reduce drainage and nutrient losses in the following rainy season when food crops are grown. The volumetric water content of the 0–150 cm soil profile was measured under planted hedgerows (alternating Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia sepium) and natural fallow, both either annually cropped to sole maize or in a two-year crop/two-year fallow rotation, in the humid forest zone (annual rainfall 1700 mm) of southern Cameroon during the 1995–1996 and 1996–1997 dry seasons. Hedgerows were cut to 0.05 m height, largely eliminating trees’ water consumption during cropping phases. Differences in total soil water content at 0–150 cm depth, between systems, occurred only in the early phases of the 1996–1997 dry season. In both dry seasons, differences between systems in water content were found in some soil layers, all within 0–60 cm depth, yet, without consistent advantage of any system in exploiting the topsoil water resources. Soil water content was lower under L. leucocephala than G. sepium at 20–40 cm depth only. Below 60 cm depth, no differences in water regimes between systems were found. Under southern Cameroonian conditions it is unlikely that any of the systems has an advantage in accessing or recovering water and thus, if available, nutrients from the sub-soil. None of the systems examined was capable of delaying drainage and thus it appears unlikely that downward displacement of nutrients is delayed after the start of the rains.