Use of a water hardness test kit to measure serum calcium concentration in cattle

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether a commercially available water hardness test kit could be used to measure total serum calcium concentration and diagnose hypocalcemia in dairy cows. DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: 30 dairy cows from 19 commercial herds. PROCEDURE: Serum calcium concentration was determined using a water hardness test kit and a standard, laboratory-based method. Simple linear regression was used to determine whether there was a linear relationship between results of the 2 methods, and Spearman's rank correlation was used to calculate correlation between measurements. Sensitivity, specificity, and predictive values of using test kit-derived values for diagnosis of hypocalcemia (laboratory value < 8 mg/dl) were calculated. RESULTS: There was a high correlation and significant linear relationship between results of the 2 methods. Sensitivity, specificity, predictive value of a positive test result, and predictive value of a negative test result were 100, 73, 86, and 100%, respectively. Accuracy was improved by using a test kit-derived calcium concentration of 7 mg/dl as the cut-off for determining hypocalcemia. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Results indicate that a commercially available water hardness test kit can be used as a rapid, inexpensive method of estimating serum calcium concentrations and diagnosing hypocalcemia in dairy cattle. However, the test is not practical for cow-side use, because blood samples must be centrifuged to obtain serum for use in the test kit.     

Inescapable versus escapable shock modulates long-term potentiation in the rat hippocampus

A group of rats was trained to escape low-intensity shock in a shuttle-box test, while another group of yoked controls could not escape but was exposed to the same amount and regime of shock. After 1 week of training, long-term potentiation (LTP) was measured in vitro in hippocampal slices. Exposure to uncontrollable shock massively impaired LTP relative to exposure to the same amount and regime of controllable shock. These results provide evidence that controllability modulates plasticity at the cellular-neuronal level.     

Liquid chromatographic determination of L-ascorbate 2-polyphosphate in fish feeds by enzymatic release of L-ascorbate

An accurate method was devised to assay L-ascorbic 2-polyphosphate esters (AsPP) in fish feed by phosphatase digestion followed by determination of the released L-ascorbic acid (AsA). Compressed yeast and dithiothreitol are added to the phosphatase reaction mixture to give 95-100% recovery of AsA, which is quantitated by reverse-phase liquid chromatography (LC) with electrochemical detection. Chromatograms of all feed digests showed baseline resolution of AsA. In 3 feeds, to which 75-125 ppm AsA equivalents in the form of AsPP were added, the assay procedure gave 98-100% recovery of AsA.     

Size Distribution and Properties of Wheat Starch Granules in Relation to Crumb Grain Score of Pup‐Loaf Bread

Twelve hard winter wheat flours with protein contents of 11.8–13.6% (14% mb) were selected to investigate starch properties associated with the crumb grain score of experimentally baked pup‐loaf bread. The 12 flours were classified in four groups depending on the crumb grain scores, which ranged from 1 (questionable‐unsatisfactory) to 4 (satisfactory). Flours in groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 produced breads with pup‐loaf volumes of 910–1,035, 1,000–1,005, 950–1,025, and 955–1,010 cm³, respectively. Starches were isolated by a dough handwashing method and purified by washing to give 75–79% combined yield (dry flour basis) of prime (62–71%) and tailing (7–16%) starches. The prime starch was fractionated further into large A‐granules and small B‐granules by repeated sedimentation in aqueous slurry. All starches were assayed for weight percentage of B‐granules, swelling power (92.5°C), amylose content, and granular size distribution by quantitative digital image analysis. A positive linear correlation was found between the crumb grain scores and the A‐granule sizes (r = 0.65, P < 0.05), and a polynomial relationship (R² = 0.45, P < 0.05) occurred between the score and the weight percentage of B‐granule starch. The best crumb grain score was obtained when a flour had a weight percentage of B‐granules of 19.8–22.5%, shown by varietal effects.     

Effect of Steeping Conditions on Wet-Milling Characteristics of Hard Red Winter Wheat

A batch-wise small-scale wet-processing laboratory for whole wheat kernel has been designed and constructed to produce wheat starch and gluten from wheat grains. Hard red winter wheat kernels were steeped in three steeping media: SO₂ solution, lactic acid, and hydrochloric acid. Acid concentrations of 0.1, 0.3, and 0.5%, were used for SO₂ solutions and hydrochloric acid, and 0.1, 0.6, and 3.0% for lactic acid. After 16, 20, and 24 hr of steeping, the wheat was wet-milled. Yields and protein contents of wet-milling fractions were compared. Both high concentration of steeping media and long steeping time increased the starch yield and decreased the protein contents of the starch. However, the steeping time and acid concentration could be reduced from 24 to 20 hr and from 0.5 to 0.3%, respectively, without any statistically significant difference in starch yields or protein contents of the starch. Consistency and color of the starch were affected by both steeping time and acid concentrations of steeping media.     

Two Metal Ions Improve Brightness in Wheat-Dough Products and Affect Aqueous Dispersion of Gluten

Zinc and aluminum ions at 0.05% of wheat flour, dry basis (7.4 and 18.5 mmol/100 g, respectively), improved the brightness of raw and dried spaghetti and salt and alkaline noodles. They also retarded bacteria and yeast and mold growth in salt noodles held at 25°C for two days as determined by total plate counts. Neither metal ion caused a change in noodle cooking quality, but they imparted a slight aftertaste in cooked noodles. Wheat flour dough mixed with 0.05% zinc or 0.025% aluminum ion (fwb), when kneaded in aqueous 0.1% calcium chloride, gave gluten with increased brightness. Zinc and aluminum ions appear to complex with enzymic browning chromophores in wheat dough and gluten and change their spectral properties. Zinc and aluminum ions affected the dispersion of gluten in water at pH ~5.0 and facilitated its spray-drying, but they were not detrimental to baking quality. Citric and tartaric acids at 5 mmol/100 g of gluten (db) gave wet gluten with pH ~4.5, which improved its brightness and water dispersibility.     

Effects of Growing Location and Irrigation on Attributes and Ethanol Yields of Selected Grain Sorghums

Nine sorghum cultivars (five inbred lines and four hybrids) were grown in 2006 in three locations (Mount Hope, KS, Halstead, KS, and Plainview, TX) under different irrigation conditions and were evaluated for composition and ethanol fermentation efficiency. The objective was to study, in one growing season, the effects of genotype, growing location, and irrigation on the physical and chemical properties and fermentation efficiencies of grain sorghum. Genotype had a significant effect on chemical composition, physical properties, and ethanol yield. The cultivars showed a large variation in starch (61.0–74.8%), protein (7.56–16.35%), crude fat (2.79–4.77%), crude fiber (0.58–2.57%), ash (1.25–2.26%), kernel weight (20.0–35.9 mg), kernel hardness (49.6–97.5), and kernel size (1.9–2.7 mm) and were the most important factors affecting ethanol fermentation efficiency (87.5–93.9%). Starch and protein contents were significantly affected by growing location but not by irrigation. Environment had a significant effect on ethanol yields. Unexpectedly, irrigation somewhat reduced fermentation efficiency.     

Volatile Compounds in Five Starches

Volatile compounds in commercial wheat, corn, potato, waxy corn, and tapioca starches and in laboratory‐prepared wheat, corn, and potato starches were collected, separated, and identified by a purge and trap concentrator (P&T) interfaced to a gas chromatograph (GC) equipped with a Fourier transform infrared detector (FTIRD) and a mass selective detector (MSD). Hexanal was the most abundant compound in the corn and potato starches and in the laboratory‐prepared wheat starch as determined by total ion chromatogram (TIC) peak areas. Hexanal was the third most abundant compound in commercial wheat starch after 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol and benzaldehyde. Among the volatile organics, the level of aldehydes was the highest, followed by alcohols, ketones, benzenes, esters, and terpenes. Specific compounds identified, the majority of which appear to be degradation products of lipid peroxidation, include hexanal, heptanal, octanal, nonanal, decanal, benzaldehyde, 2‐propanone, 2‐propanol, 1‐butanol, 2‐ethyl‐1‐hexanol, methylbenzene, and tetradecane. Waxy corn starch, which released a substantially higher level of total volatiles than all other starches, contained large amounts of pentyl, 2‐methyl‐1‐butyl, benzyl, and isobornyl acetates; and citronella and 1,8‐cineole. Tapioca starch contained few volatiles but did contain an increased level of 2‐propanol. No alcohols occurred in the commercial corn starch. Terpene compounds were detected only in commercial potato, waxy corn, and tapioca starches. Many volatiles detected in wheat and corn starches also were detected in the kernels of their commercial samples.     

Lipids in Japanese Noodle Flours

Lipids in Japanese salt and alkaline noodle flours and in Australian soft white wheat (SWW) flours were extracted and compared. Nonstarch lipid (NSL) and free lipid (FL) levels ranges were 1.33–1.71% and 0.84–1.04%, respectively, for nine Japanese salt noodle flours compared to 1.43–1.50% and 0.97–1.00% for three Australian SWW flours used mainly to prepare salt noodle. The six Japanese alkaline noodle flours averaged ≈15% less NSL and 20% less FL than the Australian flours. The NSL was separated by column chromatography into nonpolar lipid (NL), glycolipid (GL), and phospholipid (PL) fractions. The NSL extracted from salt noodle and Australian flours contained ≈36% more NL than that from alkaline noodle flour. The composition of NSL was similar for salt noodle and Australian SWW flours but was different for alkaline noodle flour. Japanese salt noodle flour could be differentiated from alkaline noodle flour by the higher levels of NSL and FL, although those elevated levels may be caused in part to the somewhat higher extraction rate for the salt-noodle flours. However, two parameters independent of extraction rate, the ratios of NL/PL and NL/ash were 47 and 15% higher, respectively, in the salt vs. alkaline noodle flours.     

Polyphosphorylated L-ascorbic Acid: A Stable Form of Vitamin C for Aquaculture Feeds

A protected form of vitamin C, L-ascorbyl-2-poly phosphate (APP), was tested for safety and efficacy in fishes. Phosphorylation of the 2-hydroxyl group protected the 2,3-enediol of L-ascorbic acid against oxidation. When APP was added to feed, about 15% of its vitamin C activity was lost during milling and storing 5–7 d at ambient temperature. Stability of APP in pelleted feeds at 25 or 40 C was up to 83 times or 45 times greater than that of ascorbic acid (AA), respectively. In later tests, trout feed mash, steam-pelleted in triplicate, frozen, and shipped on dry ice before analysis, had 46% loss of AA and no apparent loss of APP. With 16% milling loss (highest detected in trout feeds assayed in initial tests) and 22% storage loss after 90 d, conservative APP mix rates were estimated. Mixing 153 g L-ascorbate-equivalent as APP per metric ton of airdry ingredients (153 ppm) would give 128 ppm in the finished feed after steam-pelleting and 100 ppm after 60–90 d storage at 40 C. Low-temperature extrusion of Oregon-Moist salmon feed reduced AA slightly. Ascorbic acid oxidized in frozen storage and while thawing and, after 12 h at room temperature, only trace amounts remained. Ascorbyl-2-polyphosphate at 0.05 to 0.2 times that of equimolar AA in casein-base or practical feeds supported long-term growth and development in rainbow trout and other fishes. Trout feeding trials with practical feeds in actual production regimens documented APP activity at growth rates approaching the maximum for trout farming. Corrected for greater stability, APP antiscorbutic activity appeared to be comparable to that of AA on a molar-equivalent basis. Similarly, apparent equimolar activity was inferred from estimated equilibrium levels of liver, kidney, and whole-body AA and L-ascorbyl-2-sulfate (AS) after prolonged APP use in trout feeds. Fathead minnow growth and reproduction in egg-to-egg life-cycle tests also confirmed APP safety and efficacy as a stabilized source of vitamin C for feeds. None of the typical lesions of scoliosis, malformed gill lamellae, and crenulated opercles, nor conditions of poor health, anorexia, and eventual torpor seen in vitamin C-deficient controls occurred in trout fed APP. No liver pathology was evident in trout fed APP for 252 d at 1.7 to 3.3 times the National Research Council's recommended vitamin C (equivalent) rates.