State-of-the-art review of goat TSE in the European Union, with special emphasis on PRNP genetics and epidemiology

Scrapie is a fatal, neurodegenerative disease of sheep and goats. It is also the earliest known member in the family of diseases classified as transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSE) or prion diseases, which includes Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease in humans, bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE), and chronic wasting disease in cervids. The recent revelation of naturally occurring BSE in a goat has brought the issue of TSE in goats to the attention of the public. In contrast to scrapie, BSE presents a proven risk to humans. The risk of goat BSE, however, is difficult to evaluate, as our knowledge of TSE in goats is limited. Natural caprine scrapie has been discovered throughout Europe, with reported cases generally being greatest in countries with the highest goat populations. As with sheep scrapie, susceptibility and incubation period duration of goat scrapie are most likely controlled by the prion protein (PrP) gene (PRNP). Like the PRNP of sheep, the caprine PRNP shows significantly greater variability than that of cattle and humans. Although PRNP variability in goats differs from that observed in sheep, the two species share several identical alleles. Moreover, while the ARR allele associated with enhancing resistance in sheep is not present in the goat PRNP, there is evidence for the existence of other PrP variants related to resistance. This review presents the current knowledge of the epidemiology of caprine scrapie within the major European goat populations, and compiles the current data on genetic variability of PRNP.     

Persistence of azadirachtin residues on olives after field treatment

In this work an HPLC method for the determination of azadirachtin residues on olives was developed, and the field degradation kinetics of the pesticide was studied. In field trials the active ingredient (a.i.) decay had a half-life time of 0.8 days, which was too short to show a good efficacy of treatment. The mechanism of disappearance of the pesticide studied with model systems showed that it was unrelated to evaporation, thermodegradation, and co-distillation, but it was related to photodegradation. The high photodegradation rate of commercial formulations calls for the need to test different formulates in order to increase the persistence of the residue and thus the pesticide's efficacy.     

Seasonal Variations of Sulphate Reduction Rates, Sulphur Pools and Iron Availability in the Sediment of a Dystrophic Lagoon (Sacca di Goro, Italy)

The aim of this work was to analyse factors which regulate sulphide mobility in the sediments of a dystrophic lagoon (Sacca di Goro, the southern lagoon of the Po river delta, Italy). In 1995-96, sediment oxygen demand and variations in organic matter content, redox potential, iron availability, inorganic sulphur concentrations and sulphate reduction rates were measured in sediment profiles at three stations (G, 4 and 17) representative of the main areas of the lagoon. Stations differed mainly in their salinity range and primary producer communities. High concentrations of reactive iron (110-275 µmol ml-1) and low sulphate reduction rates (0.8-16.1 mmol m-2 d-1) were measured in the sediment. Moreover, high concentrations of reactive ferric iron were detected in winter and spring at the stations closest to the freshwater inputs. Nevertheless, in summer, high concentrations of free sulphides were detected in the porewater, although most of the reactive ferrous iron was not sulphide-bound, indicating that not all of the reactive iron pool was available to buffer against sulphide release and thus measures of reactive iron pools may not be a good measure of the true buffering capacity of the sediment. Furthermore, a considerable production of sulphide may occur in the decaying Ulva biomass in the water column, where its concentration will be independent of the potential buffering capacity of iron in the sediment. Therefore when assessing the vulnerability of coastal lagoons to dystrophic events, both the size and availability of the reactive iron pool as well as the site of sulphide production must be taken into consideration.     

In vitro activity of the essential oil of Cinnamomum zeylanicum and eugenol in peroxynitrite-induced oxidative processes

The essential oil obtained from the bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae) and three of its main components, eugenol, (E)-cinnamaldehyde, and linalool (representing 82.5% of the total composition), were tested in two in vitro models of peroxynitrite-induced nitration and lipid peroxidation. The essential oil and eugenol showed very powerful activities, decreasing 3-nitrotyrosine formation with IC50 values of 18.4 microg/mL and 46.7 microM, respectively (reference compound, ascorbic acid, 71.3 microg/mL and 405.0 microM) and also inhibiting the peroxynitrite-induced lipid peroxidation showing an IC50 of 2.0 microg/mL and 13.1 microM, respectively, against 59.0 microg/mL (235.5 microM) of the reference compound Trolox. On the contrary, (E)-cinnamaldehyde and linalool were completely inactive.     

Methyleugenol in Ocimum basilicum L. Cv. genovese gigante

Ocimum basilicum cv. Genovese Gigante is the basil cultivar used the most in the production of a typical Italian sauce called pesto. The aromatic composition of plants at different growth stages was determined. Plants from different areas of northwestern Italy were analyzed at 4 and 6 weeks after sowing and showed methyleugenol and eugenol as the main components. The content of these compounds was correlated with plant height rather than plant age. Particularly, methyleugenol was predominant in plants up to 10 cm in height, whereas eugenol was prevalent in taller plants. These results are important in the evaluation of risk to human health posed by dietary ingestion of methyleugenol contained in pesto.     

Cartap hydrolysis relative to its action at the insect nicotinic channel

The insecticide cartap is the bis(thiocarbamate) derivative of 2-(dimethylamino)propane-1,3-dithiol, which on oxidation forms the natural toxicant nereistoxin (NTX) [4-(dimethylamino)-1,2-dithiolane]. Both cartap and NTX are ion channel blockers of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR). Cartap was originally proposed to act only after metabolic conversion to NTX and later suggested to block directly without activation. The present study uses a new approach to differentiate these hypotheses, that is, pH effects on channel-blocking activity and hydrolysis rates. As controls, mecamylamine (the classic channel blocker) and NTX are stable and similar in channel-blocking potency ([(3)H]thienylcyclohexylpiperidine binding assay, honeybee nAChR) at pH 6.1-8.4. In contrast, cartap is >200-fold more effective at pH 7.4 than at pH 6.1, indicating that it undergoes hydrolytic activation. Cartap slowly hydrolyzes to cartap monothiol at pH 6.1 but quickly forms the dithiol and some NTX at pH 7.4. The relationship between potency and hydrolysis products at various pH ranges suggests that cartap dithiol is the most plausible blocking agent.     

Linalool from Lippia alba: study of the reproducibility of the essential oil profile and the enantiomeric purity

A new chemotype of the aromatic Verbenaceae species Lippia alba Mill. N. E. Br. from southeastern Brazil has recently been shown to have a high content of linalool in the leaf essential oil. Vegetative propagation of this chemotype was conducted at six different locations in Brazil, and the variation of the content and the optical purity of linalool in the oils were verified. Yields (0.6-0.9%, hydrodistillation), chemical composition, linalool content, and optical purity of the oils from all the plants were compared, using GC-FID, GC-MS, chiral chromatography, and retention index calculation. No plant exceeded the matrix in linalool content (46.5 to 90.7%), and the chemical profile of the oils was the same for all the samples. Purification of linalool to a content close to 100% was effected by vacuum distillation of the crude oil. Chiral analysis showed exclusively the presence of S-linalool in all the crude oils and in the distilled samples.     

Genetic and antigenic characterization of the matrix protein of two genetically distinct ovine lentiviruses

Small Ruminant Lentiviruses (SRLV) are a group of non-oncogenic retroviruses including Maedi-Visna virus (MVV) and Caprine Arthritis-Encephalitis virus (CAEV), which cause a chronic, multisystemic disease in sheep and goats, respectively. Phylogenetic analyses of SRLV are based in most cases on partial pol sequences. Several reports indicate that the species specificity of these viruses is not as strict as previously thought; MVV-like viruses have been found in goat populations and vice versa. Recently, the sequencing of some Italian ovine isolates has shown the presence of a new cluster more similar to classical caprine isolates (CAEV-like). Few data are available on the variability of structural proteins involved in the antibody response of infected animals. In this study, the gag gene of two genetically distinct ovine isolates, namely the MVV-like It-561 and the CAEV-like It-Pi1, was sequenced and the epitopes of matrix protein (MA) were mapped. Recombinant MAs and their subunits from both ovine aforementioned strains were tested against a panel of sheep and goat sera. Reactive epitopes were found in all three subunits of MA, although the central subunit displayed a more consistent reactivity. Epitope mapping of this subunit demonstrated that the amino acid sequence of at least one immunodominant epitope was quite different in the two strains. This antigenic variability may affect the sensitivity of a single strain-based immunoassay and suggests that both SRLV genotypes should be used in the development of future diagnostic tests, to avoid viral strain selection during the eradication programmes.     

Small ruminant lentiviruses in Jordan: evaluation of sheep and goat serological response using recombinant and peptide antigens

Small ruminant lentiviruses infect sheep and goats worldwide, causing chronic progressive diseases and relevant economic losses. Disease eradication and prevention is mostly based on serological testing. The goal of this research was to investigate the presence of the small ruminant lentiviruses (SRLVs) in Jordan and to characterize the serological response in sheep and goat populations. A panel of sera were collected from flocks located in Northern Jordan and Jordan Valley. The samples were tested using three ELISA assays: a commercially available ELISA based on p25 recombinant protein and transmembrane peptide derived from British maedi–visna virus (MVV) EV1 strain, an ELISA based on P16-P25 recombinant protein derived from two Italian strains representative of MVV- and caprine arthritis encephalitis virus (CAEV)-like SRLVs, and an ELISA based on SU5 peptide from the same two Italian isolates. The results indicate that both MVV- and CAEV-like strains are present in Jordan and that the majority of the viruses circulating among sheep and goat populations belong to the MVV-like genotype.     

Moderate stocking density does not influence the behavioural and physiological responses of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) in organic aquaculture

Welfare in farmed fish got particular attention during the last decades from both governmental and public sides. In aquaculture context, welfare concerns are mainly related to handling procedures, water quality and stoking densities. In Europe, authorities had to clarify the threshold limits of stocking densities to maintain fish good welfare, including for organics aquaculture through the EC regulation 710/2009. However, effects of stocking density on fish welfare are complex and sometimes contradictory. Moreover, there is a lack of knowledge about the impact of density on fish welfare in organic aquaculture. Thus, the aim of the study is to asses welfare state of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at two initial stocking densities (low density, LD: 12 kg/m³ and high density, HD: 17 kg/m³) fed using organic feed by combining the monitoring of growth performances, behaviour (swimming activity) and physiological indicators (i.e. cortisol, glucose, lactate, hematocrit, red blood cellule count and lysozyme). At the end of experiment, the stocking density reached 21 kg/m³ and 30 kg/m³ for the LD and HD respectively. Overall, growth performances, swimming activity and level of physiological indicators of stress and welfare were similar between HD and LD over the experiment duration. To conclude, we observed no alteration of fish welfare between the two stocking densities monitored. This study suggests that a final stocking density of 30 kg/m³ can be considered for organic aquaculture of rainbow trout respecting welfare.