Silvopastoralism in New Zealand: review of effects of evergreen and deciduous trees on pasture dynamics

Complex interactions between livestock, trees and pasture occur in silvopastoral systems. Between trees and pasture, competition for soil resources (nutrients and water) occurs, becoming especially relevant when one of them is in scarce supply. Trees reduce light and water reaching the understorey layers according to tree density and canopy size. However, they may ameliorate extreme climatological features (reducing wind speed and evapotranspiration, and alleviating extreme temperatures), and improve soil properties, for example, deciduous tree litter may contribute to increased pH and soil nutrient concentrations. During tree establishment, there are generally negligible effects on pasture, irrespective of tree type. However, there is a decline in pasture production and nutritive value under shade with increasing tree age and higher stand density. Under the same conditions, deciduous trees affect pasture later (extinction point of pasture occurs at 85% of canopy closure) than evergreen trees (about 67% for Pinus radiata D. Don). This is mainly because deciduous trees have a leafless period that enables pasture recovery, and their litter smothers pasture less intensely because of its relatively fast decomposition. Silvopastoral studies conducted in New Zealand are reviewed to discuss these effects, and differences in the effects of evergreen and deciduous trees are shown using the examples of P. radiata, and Populus and Salix spp. respectively, which exist in many temperate countries. Future research needs are outlined.     

不同牧草混播对退化高寒草甸土壤养分及生物量的影响

适宜的牧草混播对于改善退化高寒草甸及高寒地区畜牧业现状具有重要的现实意义,但不同牧草混播条件下退化高寒草甸土壤养分及生物量变化特征尚不明确。为此,本研究以垂穗披碱草（Elymus nutans）、早熟禾（Poa pratensis）、呼伦贝尔苜蓿（Medicago falcata）为试验草种,在三江源区重度退化高寒草甸开展为期3年的混播试验,探讨不同牧草混播对退化高寒草甸土壤养分及生物量的影响。结果表明：不同牧草混播条件下,草甸土壤有机碳含量与全氮及不同形态氮素含量呈显著正相关（P<0.05）;草甸土壤养分含量发生显著变化（P<0.05）,EM（垂穗披碱草+呼伦贝尔苜蓿）混播的土壤养分状况最佳;草甸地上、地下生物量显著增加（P<0.05）,EM混播的效果最为显著（P<0.05）。综上,在重度退化高寒草甸恢复过程中,如采取人工草地建植手段,建议选择EM混播。     

Effect of grazing intensity and soil characteristics on soil organic carbon and nitrogen stocks in a temperate long-term grassland

The effects of different grazing pressures (GPs) on soil properties are not sufficiently understood. The objectives were to analyse the effects of three different extensive GPs on stocks of soil organic C and total N, soil microbial biomass C, basal respiration and mineral N in three different soil depths of a long-term pasture in Central Germany (FORBIOBEN field trial). No significant (p ≤ 0.05) effects of GP on weighted stocks of soil organic C, total N, soil microbial biomass C, mineral N and basal respiration rate were observed, suggesting that the C and N cycles are coupled in the three grazing treatments. Oxalate soluble Fe contents explained a marked part of the variation of soil organic C (multiple linear regression: R² = 0.64) and total N contents (R² = 0.64) in the soils, whereas almost all of the variability of soil microbial biomass C contents and basal respiration was explained by soil organic C contents. Overall, variabilities of soil organic C and N contents were largely explained by oxalate soluble Fe contents, whereas grazing intensity did not affect the C and N dynamics.     

西北部分地区草样中微生物多样性及乳酸菌种群的研究

[目的]为牧草青贮饲料科学合理地利用和制作提供一定的参考依据。[方法]分析西北地区牧草样品中的微生物种类和数量,从中分离鉴定了11株乳酸菌,并研究了这些乳酸菌的结构和特性。[结果]分离株都是革兰氏阳性、过氧化氢酶阴性和兼性厌氧菌。所分离得到的菌株中同型发酵占78%。根据所分离的乳酸菌的形态学和生理生化特性,这些乳酸菌可被分为3组（A,B和C）。经表型分类鉴定,A组为乳杆菌（Lactobacillus）,B组为球菌（Leuconostocaceae）,C组为球菌（Lactococcus）。[结论]分离鉴定了西北地区牧草附着微生物的种类和特性,为牧草青贮饲料的制作提供了科学依据。     

Differential responses of amphibians and reptiles in riparian and stream habitats to land use disturbances in western Georgia, USA

Urban and agricultural land uses have caused documented declines in diversity of many organisms. However, responses of stream- and riparian-dwelling amphibians and reptiles to anthropogenic land development are collectively understudied and, when studied, are often grouped together as though these two taxa respond in a similar fashion. We surveyed watersheds in four land use categories (reference, pasture, developing, and urban) for amphibian and reptile species richness over a two-year period in the southeastern United States. Total herpetofauna species richness was equivalent among all watershed types, but amphibians and reptiles responded differently to urbanization when analyzed separately. Urban watersheds had significantly fewer amphibian species than all other watershed types, but these losses were counterbalanced by significant increases in reptile species richness in these same watersheds. We also found that local, riparian-scale, habitat differences were strongly correlated with species composition differences between pasture and developing watersheds. While the difference in species composition between pasture and developing sites may have multiple, species-specific explanations, the dramatic differences between amphibian and reptile species richness in urban watersheds suggest broad trends that may be important to conservation planning. Specifically, our observations suggest that urbanization in the studied watersheds alters small streams from closed-canopy, shallow-water features of the forested landscape likely present before settlement by Europeans and favored by many salamanders and frogs to features associated with open vegetation and deeper, warmer waters favored by riverine turtles and snakes. We conclude that amphibians and reptiles, despite some physiological similarities, are not equivalent for monitoring purposes. Additionally, if future development in the Piedmont mirrors current urbanization, then significant faunal shifts seem assured.     

Evaluation of spatial and temporal variability of pasture based on topography and the quality of the rainy season

Yield and botanical composition of a given dry-land pasture are heavily influenced by rainfall distribution, and vary according to topography. Through analyzing these parameters, it is possible to identify patterns of spatial distribution, related to topographic characteristics, which can be used to improve spatial management of pasture. The main objective of this project was to assess the role of rainfall, temperature and topography in the spatial and temporal variability of pasture and establish models for predicting the spatial distribution and yield of certain plant species, based on its topographic characteristics. This study was carried out over three years, 2004 to 2006, in a dry-land pasture located in Southern Portugal. The data obtained were analyzed as a function of distance to flow lines and the results demonstrate that certain topographical characteristics, associated with agronomic information, can be very useful in explaining the spatial and temporal variability of yield and the botanical composition of the pasture. The slope of the linear regression of the variables mentioned can be used to estimate the spatial variation of yield and the botanical composition as a function of distance to flow lines. The regression coefficient can be estimated from the annual rainfall, given the strong correlation between the two.     

安塞纸坊沟流域草地资源利用空间结构及其畜牧业发展潜力

黄土丘陵沟壑区是黄土高原生态环境极其脆弱,经济发展十分落后的地区.随着国家退耕还林(草)政策的实施,给区域天然草地的恢复与重建以及人工草地的发展带来了契机.种草养畜以其环境亲和特点,以及稳定的生产和较高的产品商品率,在黄土丘陵沟壑区越来越受到重视.文章试以安塞纸坊沟流域为例,通过航片解译分析流域土地利用现状.结合流域地形特点、生态生产特征和流域社会经济调查,通过GIS空间分析,划分流域生态生产区.讨论其功能和资源利用特点,以此提出流域草地资源利用的空间结构.依据利用程度,将其划分为高效人工草地带,农草、林草间轮作草地带以及天然轮牧草地带三种利用模式.根据不同利用带生物产量,计算最大载畜量,以期为流域环境保护、未来畜牧业发展及区域治理提供可靠依据和具体参考.     

Reducing NH3, N2O and {\text{NO}}_3^ - –N losses from a pasture soil with urease or nitrification inhibitors and elemental S-amended nitrogenous fertilizers

A 3-month field experiment comparing nitrogen (N) losses from and the agronomic efficiency of various N fertilizers was conducted on a sandy loam (Typic Hapludand) soil at Ruakura AgResearch farm, Hamilton, New Zealand during October to December 2003. Three replicates of seven treatments: urea, urea + the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (trade name Agrotain), urea + Agrotain + elemental sulphur (S), urea + double inhibitor [DI; i.e., Agrotain + dicyandiamide (DCD)], diammonium phosphate (DAP), DAP + S, each applied at 150 kg N ha⁻¹, and control (no N). After fertilizer application, soil ammonium () and nitrate () concentrations (7.5-cm soil depth), ammonia (NH₃) volatilization, nitrate () leaching, nitrous oxide (N₂O) emission, pasture dry matter, and N uptake were monitored at different timings. Urea applied with Agrotain or Agrotain + S delayed urea hydrolysis and released soil at a slower rate than urea alone or urea + DI. Urea applied with DI increased NH₃ volatilization by 29% over urea alone, while urea + Agrotain and urea + Agrotain + S reduced NH₃ volatilization by 45 and 48%, respectively. Ammonia volatilization losses from DAP were lower than those from urea with or without inhibitors. Total reduction in leaching losses for urea + DI and urea + Agrotain compared to urea alone were 89% and 47%, respectively. Application of S with urea + Agrotain reduced leaching losses by an additional 6%. Nitrous oxide emissions were higher from the DAP and urea alone treatments. Urea applied with DI and urea + Agrotain reduced N₂O emissions by 37 and 5%, respectively, over urea alone. Compared to urea alone, total pasture production increased by 20, 17, and 15% for urea + Agrotain + S, urea + Agrotain, and urea + DI treatments, respectively, representing 86, 71, and 64% increases in N response efficiency. Total N uptake in urea + Agrotain, urea + Agrotain + S, and urea + DI increased by 29, 22, and 20%, respectively, compared to urea alone. These results suggest that the combination of both urease and nitrification inhibitors may have the most potential to reduce N losses and improve pasture production in intensively grazed systems.     

河北丰宁坝上孤石牧场土壤种子库与地上植被的关系

通过研究孤石牧场退耕地和非退耕地地上植被与种子库的变化特征,结果表明：（1）退耕地地上植被与土壤种子库物种多样性高于非退耕地,从地上植被和种子库组成分析得出,退耕地正处于一年生草本植物向多年生草本植物恢复演替阶段;（2）退耕地地上植被与土壤种子库的物种丰富度（25,20）及数量（2970,593）大于非退耕地地上植被与土壤种子库的丰富度（16,17）和数量（1806,120）;（3）地上植被与土壤种子库共有种数在退耕地上较多（8种）。在非退耕地上较少（3种）,从而导致了地上植被与土壤种子库群落组成之间的相异性增大。