Determining reference values for stem water potential and maximum daily trunk shrinkage in young apple trees based on plant responses to water deficit

The use of plant water status indicators such as midday stem water potential (Ψ_stem) and maximum daily trunk shrinkage (MDS) in irrigation scheduling requires the definition of a reference or threshold value, beyond which irrigation is necessary. These reference values are generally obtained by comparing the seasonal variation of plant water status with the environmental conditions under non-limiting soil water availability. In the present study an alternative approach is presented based on the plant’s response to water deficit. A drought experiment was carried out on two apple cultivars (Malus domestica Borkh. ‘Mutsu’ and ‘Cox Orange’) in which both indicators (Ψ_stem and MDS) were related to several plant physiological responses. Sap flow rates, maximum net photosynthesis rates and daily radial stem growth (DRSG) (derived from continuous stem diameter variation measurements) were considered in the assessment of the approach. Depending on the chosen plant response in relationship with Ψ_stem or MDS, the obtained reference values varied between −1.04 and −1.46 MPa for Ψ_stem and between 0.17 and 0.28 mm for MDS. In both cultivars, the approach based on maximum photosynthesis rates resulted in less negative Ψ_stem values and smaller MDS values, compared to the approaches with sap flow and daily radial stem growth. In the well-irrigated apple trees, day-to-day variations in midday Ψ_stem and MDS were related to the evaporative demand. These variations were more substantial for MDS than for midday Ψ_stem.     

Growth rates and survival of western rock lobster (Panulirus cygnus) at two temperatures (ambient and 23 °C) and two feeding frequencies

Wild caught post-pueruli, year one and year two post settlement juvenile western rock lobster, Panulirus cygnus, were held at ambient temperatures (15.6 °C to 23.1 °C; mean 19.0 ± 0.07 °C) or at 23 °C, and fed the same ration of a formulated pellet diet either once per night, or 3 times per night, over 12 months, to determine whether elevated temperatures and multiple feeds per night would stimulate growth through increased metabolism and feed utilisation without significant negative impacts on survival. Survival of post-pueruli (mean 63%) did not differ between ambient and 23 °C. Survival of year 1 and 2 juveniles was higher at ambient temperatures (p < 0.01 ambient: year 1 juveniles, 68%; year 2 juveniles, 88%; 23 °C: 57% and 74%, respectively). Feeding frequency did not affect survival of post-pueruli and year 2 juveniles (mean 63%, 81% respectively), but survival was 9% higher for year 1 juveniles fed three times per night (58% versus 67%; p < 0.01). All lobsters grew faster at 23 °C than at ambient temperatures (p < 0.05), with the growth of post-pueruli almost doubled at 23 °C (weight gain at 23 °C versus ambient: post-pueruli, 18 438 % versus 9 915 %; year 1 juveniles 259% versus 165%; year 2 juveniles 23% versus 21%). Feed frequency did not influence the growth of year 1 and 2 juveniles. However, there was an interaction effect of temperature and feed frequency on post-pueruli where weight and carapace length were significantly higher at ambient temperatures when post-pueruli were fed three times a day, whereas at 23 °C weight and carapace length were significantly greater when fed once per day (p < 0.05). Feed intake (g pellet dry matter lobster^− 1 day^− 1) of pellet was higher at 23 °C for all lobsters (p < 0.05), but was the same between lobsters fed 3 times per night versus once per night. This study has shown that increasing temperatures to 23 °C significantly improved the growth of P. cygnus post-pueruli without any adverse effects on survival. The faster growth rates exhibited by year 1 and 2 juveniles at 23 °C may potentially offset their lower survival by significantly reducing culture period. There is no benefit of feeding P. cygnus multiple times at night in terms of growth and survival. The implications for P. cygnus culture are that temperatures should be maintained close to 23 °C during the entire growout period, with due care taken to minimise mortalities through adequate provision of food and shelter. Feeding P. cygnus once daily to excess just prior to dusk to co-incide with nocturnal feeding behaviour is recommended.     

Influence of light intensity on feeding, growth, and early survival of leopard coral grouper (Plectropomus leopardus) larvae under mass-scale rearing conditions

This study investigated the effect of different light intensities on feeding, growth and survival of early stage leopard coral grouper Plectropomus leopardus larvae. Four different light intensities (0, 500, 1000 and 3000 lx) were used and larvae were kept under constant light conditions from 0 day after hatching (DAH) to 5 DAH. The larvae were fed a small S-type of Thai strain rotifers at a density of 20 individuals/mL from 2 DAH. The number of rotifers in larval digestive organ and total length of larvae were examined at 3 h intervals between 04:00 and 22:00 h on 3 DAH, and thereafter at 6 h intervals until the end of the experiment (5 DAH). Four experimental trials of the larval rearing were repeated using by 60 kL mass-scale rearing tanks. The results indicate that coral grouper larvae are visual feeders and their food intake increases with increasing light intensity. Food intake of larvae reared at 3000 lx was significantly higher than those reared at 0–1000 lx on 3 DAH despite being the first-feeding day (P < 0.01). On 4 DAH, total length of larvae reared at 3000 lx was significantly larger than those reared at the lower light intensities (0, 500 and 1000 lx), and thereafter light intensity significantly influenced larval feeding and growth until the end of the experiment. Survival on 5 DAH did not show a significant difference between light intensities, but survival rate at 3000 lx and 1000 lx had a tendency to be higher than those reared at the lower light intensities (0 and 500 lx). In contrast, larvae reared at 0 lx exhibited stagnant and/or negative growth. These results indicate that light intensity is significantly the factor affecting larval feeding, growth, and survival in coral grouper larvae under the rearing conditions.     

Effect of eye fluke infection on the growth of whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) —An experimental approach

Effect of the eye fluke Diplostomum spathaceum on fish growth has remained somewhat unclear because 1) the question has not been subjected to experimental examination with treatment-control setup and 2) growth has not been related to the coverage of parasite-induced cataracts in a quantitative manner. We examined effects of the parasite on growth and competitive ability of whitefish (Coregonus lavaretus) in experimental conditions resembling those at fish farms by maintaining groups of exposed and control fish, as well as mixed groups from both treatments, under optimal conditions for 8 weeks. Contrary to our expectations, we did not observe differences in fish growth between the treatments. However, at the level of individual fish, parasite-induced cataracts had a negative effect on weight of the exposed fish but this took place only when the cataract coverage reached 100% in both eyes. No effect of the infection on competitive ability of fish was observed in mixed treatments which may be related to patterns of food distribution in the tanks or cues received by the fish from less infected conspecifics. Overall, the results suggest that effects of D. spathaceum on fish growth become apparent only in cases of very high cataract coverage, and that feeding regimes and the shape of the cataract coverage distribution in a fish group are important determinants of the magnitude of these effects.     

Rearing performance of Clarias batrachus larvae: Effect of age at stocking on growth and survival during fingerling production

An experiment was conducted to evaluate the rearing performance of different larval stages for optimum growth and survival during fingerling production of Clarias batrachus with an aim to reduce the rearing time of the catfish larvae in a hatchery system. The larvae were reared for 5, 10 and 15 days before stocking them in the nursery tanks. No significant (P < 0.05) difference could be found in length increment at the end of first week of rearing. But the total length was reduced during rest three weeks in five days old larvae compared to that of other two higher age groups. In 5 days old larvae the reduced weight (P < 0.05) was observed during the entire rearing period. However, the specific growth rate (SGR) did not vary among the groups. The survival rate as well as total biomass was decreased while stocking five days old larvae for rearing, compared to that of other two age groups.     

Outdoor mass microalgae production in Bahia Kino, Sonora, NW Mexico

The diatom Chaetoceros muelleri was grown in outdoor mass cultures under the winter, spring and summer conditions of Bahia Kino, Sonora, NW Mexico. The solar irradiance in winter was close to 60% of that available in spring and summer, but the cell concentrations and the harvestable biomass were one order of magnitude higher in spring and summer than in winter. There was no difference between the biomass harvested after 2 and 3 days in winter and summer, whereas in spring it was higher after 3 days. The protein content was significantly lower in winter, and carbohydrates and lipids were higher in winter and spring. The number of cells and the amount of harvestable biomass of outdoor cultures of C. muelleri depend on the temperature prevailing in each season, which causes significant differences in growth rates and in biochemical composition.     

Age and growth of the largemouth perch Percichthys colhuapiensis in the Negro river, Argentine Patagonia

Largemouth perch (Percichthys colhuapiensis) represents one of the most economically important fish species in the Argentine Patagonia. However, little research has been done on the age and growth and population dynamics of this fish, though both studies are essential to properly deal with fisheries forecasts and management. As a contribution to elaborating management programmes for P. colhuapiensis, we evaluated the age and growth of this species in the Negro river via scale and whole otolith reading methods. The sample consisted of 579 specimens ranging in total length (TL) from 90 to 475 mm, captured seasonally from December 1994 to December 1995. The formation of scale annuli (end of winter) and the hyaline zone on otoliths (winter) of adult fish coincided with the beginning of the spawning season (end of winter-beginning of spring). The maximum estimated age was 11 years, which indicates that this is a relatively long-lived species. Otoliths were useful for ageing specimens 1–5 years-old, but above this age whole otoliths yielded lower age estimates than scales. Isometric growth of weight with length was found for total population, juveniles, and separate sexes (p > 0.25 in all cases). No significant differences between the length–weight relationships of sexes were observed (p > 0.10). Length at first maturity was significantly higher for males (TL₅₀ = 271 mm TL; r = 0.88) than for females (TL₅₀ = 243 mm TL; r = 0.96) (p < 0.01). Largemouth perch exhibited a consistent pattern of increase in length with age, with a period of fast growth during the first 5 years, and a slow-growing phase during the rest of his life. The growth parameters based on scale data were L∞: 462.1 mm, k = 0.23 and t₀ = −0.94 for total population, L∞: 402.3 mm, k = 0.33 and t₀ = −0.67 for males, and L∞: 548.4 mm, k = 0.15 and t₀ = −1.59 for females, whereas those based on otolith reading were L∞: 537.4 mm, k = 0.17 and t₀ = −1.0 for total population, L∞: 497.6 mm, k = 0.21 and t₀ = −0.79 for males, and L∞: 582.0 mm, k = 0.14 and t₀ = −1.53 for females. Scales are concluded to be the best structure to age P. colhuapiensis because they rendered L∞ values closer to the maximum TL observed, high precision, easiness of collection, low processing time, and the possibility of performing non-destructive monitoring studies.     

Growth overfishing in the brown shrimp fishery of Texas, Louisiana, and adjoining Gulf of Mexico EEZ

Growth overfishing in the brown shrimp, Farfantepenaeus aztecus, fishery in inshore (estuarine) and offshore (Gulf of Mexico) territorial waters of Texas and Louisiana, and adjoining waters of the United States’ (U.S.) Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), and its potentially detrimental economic consequences to the harvesting sector, have not been among major concerns of Federal and State shrimp management agencies. Three possible reasons include (1) environmentally influenced variations in recruitment that cause wide fluctuations in annual landings, which tend to obscure effects of fishing, (2) competition between inshore and offshore components of the harvesting sector, and (3) partitioning of management jurisdiction among a Federal council and two State agencies. Wide variations in landings led to beliefs that high levels of fishing mortality were tolerable and recruitment overfishing was of no major concern. This encouraged somewhat laissez-faire management approaches that allowed fishing effort to increase over the years.Our objectives were to determine whether growth overfishing occurred in this fishery during 1960–2006, and whether and how decreases in size of shrimp within the landings, in response to increases in fishing effort, affected inflation-adjusted annual (calendar year) ex-vessel value of the landings, i.e., their value to the harvesting sector. Growth overfishing occurred in the early 1990s, and then abated as fishing effort declined due to rising fuel costs and competition from imported shrimp. However, inflation-adjusted annual ex-vessel value of the landings peaked in 1985, prior to growth overfishing.Management actions implemented in 2001 for Texas’ territorial waters, and in the EEZ off Texas and Louisiana in 2006, should limit future fleet expansion and increases in fishing effort, thereby reducing the chances of growth overfishing and its potentially detrimental economic impacts on the harvesting sector. Growth overfishing should be included among the guidelines for future management of this brown shrimp fishery.     

Use of vitamin C as an immunostimulant. Effect on growth,nutritional quality,and immune response of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Labeo rohita</Emphasis> (Ham.)

Teleost fish lack the enzyme for endogenous synthesis of ascorbic acid (AA), an essential micronutrient for fish. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of higher levels of dietary vitamin C on growth, nutritional quality, and immunomodulation in the Indian major carp, rohu (Labeo rohita). Four groups of L. rohita were fed experimental diets containing either no vitamin C (control) or supplemented with vitamin C at 500 mg kg⁻¹ (Exp-1), 1000 mg kg⁻¹ (Exp-2), or 1500 mg kg⁻¹ (Exp-3) for 60 days. Growth parameters (NWG, ADG, and SGR), serological parameters (TSP, TSA, TSG, and A:G), haematological parameters (TLC, TEC, Hct, MCV, and MCH), and different non-specific immunological parameters (PR, PI, respiratory burst activity, and bactericidal activity) were evaluated during the experimental trial. Fish fed a vitamin C-supplemented diet showed higher specific growth rate (SGR) up to 1000 mg kg⁻¹ compared with control fish. Different haematological and serological parameters along with non-specific immune parameters were influenced by vitamin C supplementation. Among the non-specific immune parameters phagocytic activity (PR and PI) and respiratory burst activity (NBT cells) were significantly (P ≤ 0.05) enhanced by increasing doses of vitamin C supplementation. Higher levels of dietary vitamin C significantly (P ≤ 0.05) enhanced protection against Aeromonas hydrophila (AH1) infection compared with controls. Results from this study help to establish the beneficial effect of vitamin C on growth and immunmodulation in rohu (L. rohita).     

Effects of different natural or prepared diets on growth and survival of juvenile spider crabs, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Maja brachydactyla</Emphasis> (Balss, 1922)

The effects of different diets (natural or pellets) on growth, survival, and moulting interval of juvenile spider crabs, weighing between 0.011–1.56 g and up to 17.6 mm in carapace length, were tested over a period of 90 days. During experiment I, five diets were tested: (1) frozen shrimp—Paleomonetes sp., (2) fresh mussels—Mytilus sp., (3) white fish fillets—Merlucius merlucius, (4) blue fish fillets—Sardina pilchardus, and (5) commercial crustacean pellets. Spider crabs fed fresh mussels grew larger (0.98 ± 0.69 g) and had higher growth rates (4.0 ± 0.7 %BWd⁻¹) compared to the other four diets. The crabs fed shrimp pellet and frozen shrimp grew to intermediate sizes and were smaller than the ones fed fresh mussels, but they were larger than spider crabs fed either blue or white fish fillets (0.46 ± 0.63 and 0.26 ± 0.13 g, respectively) compared to the ones fed white fish fillets (0.12 ± 0.04) and blue fish fillets (0.04 ± 0.02 g). The spider crabs fed blue fish fillets only lasted until day 60 of the experiment, after this day none of the 20 fed this diet were left. During experiment II, two diets were tested: (1) white and blue fish fillets and (2) commercial fish pellet. There were no differences in growth both in weight or carapace length (2.9 ± 1.8 and 2.1 ± 1.5 g in weight, and 18.9 ± 5.0 and 17.7 ± 3.3 mm, respectively) at the end of the experiment. Similarly, there were no differences in growth rates in weight between the two diets (1.2 ± 0.4 and 0.9 ± 0.3 %BWd⁻¹, respectively) or in carapace length (0.4 ± 0.1 and 0.4 ± 0.2 %BWd⁻¹, respectively). Fresh mussel appears to be a very good diet to culture the early stages of this species, while shrimp pellets also deliver acceptable results. On the contrary, frozen shrimp, fish fillets either from blue or white species (much higher lipid content in the blue species), and fish pellets were found to be bad diets for the culture of the early stages of M. brachydactyla.