The role of indigenous trees for the conservation of biocultural diversity in traditional agroforestry land use systems: The Bungoma case study: In-situ conservation of indigenous tree species

In order to precisely assess the role of agroforestry for the conservation of (agro-)biological diversity there is a need to adjust sampling methods used in plant sociology. This study is on the contribution of agroforestry land use to the in-situ conservation of indigenous trees within a typical East-African smallholder farming system in Western Kenya. A modified approach to measuring species richness and abundance is presented. The selection of tree-rich structures was done according to management patterns rather than considering syntaxonomic classifications from the vegetation science point of view. This approach, which is better suited to the strongly human-influenced vegetation of agroecosystems, employs between-management unit diversity measures to help evaluate abundance and constancy of species in particular management units. The predominant off-farm vegetation patterns are riverine forests, rocky hillsides, hedgerows, wooded grassland relicts, woodlands or colline forest relicts and tree groves whereas the noticeable tree-rich on-farm management units are homegardens, homesteads, life fences, coffee- and banana-groves and annual cropping fields. 98% out of all indigenous tree species known from Bungoma, occur in off-farm lands. 53% of the indigenous tree species occur in tree rich on-farm management units while 47% of the indigenous trees are dependent on the maintenance of off-farm lands. Hedgerows embody the most promising secondary vegetation structure that shows ample potential to accommodate a wide range of indigenous perennial species outside the natural vegetation formations. The pattern of distribution of various vegetation structures, and the mixture with diverse tree-based on-farm plots are interesting features in regard to floristic and eco-diversity on a landscape level. In this respect, three areas that show different population densities and distinct agro-historical conditions were compared. In regions of particular high population density the degree of association of various functional land use forms and woodland structures – each characterised by its own floristic make-up – is comparatively high. In contrast, in regions with less population but that were settled at a later date, one encounters fewer stands of woody plants with lower numbers of species. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

浙江海岛乡土树种资源调查研究

在植物、植被和林业调查的基础上，筛选出适应海岛生境的３９５个乡土绿化树种，分析了树种资源的基本特点，并根据立地条件分５类阐述了树种选择依据和资源现状，最后，提出了乡土树种资源开发利用意见。     

Monitoring Growth Trials

The forestry industry predominantly depends on privately-owned forests which are foreign-owned, capital intensive and export oriented. The man-made forests cover 102 000 ha, about 6% of the total area of Swaziland. The two largest plantations, Usutu and Peak Timbers, account for 71% of the total plantation area in the Kingdom.

Pines and eucalypts are the two main genera planted for pulp, mining timber, sawtimber and droppers. There are nine companies engaged in the processing of wood into various products.

The land classified as marginal in Swaziland on account of low rainfall (less than 600 mm) occurs in low-veld, with characteristic tree species like Acacia nigrescens (umkhaya), Acacia tortilis (sitfwetfwe) and a fruit tree Sclerocarya caffra (umganu). In this region, plantation agriculture of citrus trees and sugar cane is only possible under irrigation. In terms of low inherent soil fertility in the highveld, plantation forests are grown on acidic granite and gneiss and also on land whose average gradient is more than 15%. Biotically induced marginal land occurs because of man and his activities: overstocking of livestock, uncontrolled burning of the veld during the dry winter, inadequate soil husbandry, increase in demand for various forest products and infrastructural development.

Low rainfall between 1974 and 1976 killed Eucalyptus grandis and Pinus taeda and reduced the growth rate of Pinus patula. Most of the forest sites in Swaziland are marginal land on account of granite and gneiss-derived soils of low pH, i.e., 4,5 to 5. Between 1981 and 1982, 27 t of different fertilisers were used in order to achieve an MAI of at least 17 m³/ha/a of utilisable material for Pinus patula on a 22 year rotation.

Usutu Forest and Peak Timbers Plantations have progressively contributed to the economy of Swaziland since the 1940s. In 1978, forest plantations and forestry oriented industries contributed about 24% of the total export earnings. During 1980, 95% of the unbleached kraft pulp was sold outside Southern Africa, while 3,1% of the total forest products was consumed in Swaziland. The forest plantations have improved the general infrastructure, including roads and educational and recreational facilities in the areas where they occur.

Resettlement schemes have also been undertaken among the displaced people.

The interest of the Swaziland Government lies chiefly in regulation and control of the forest sector, to optimise the existing resources to the benefit of the Swazi people, mainly for economic use of the land and water resources and encouraging national participation, at both wage employment and management levels, as well as implementing forest legislation.

Plantation forest activities have, however, several disadvantages to be cited: They are land extensive and therefore tend to encroach on land used for communal grazing and hunting, bee collecting and firewood and fruit gathering, all of which are difficult to quantify in monetary terms. The Euro-American philosophy of replacing open communal land with fenced boundaries marked by cairns, with penalties on contravention, cannot be readily accepted.

The forest product needs for the rural community come from the Swazi Nation Land, covering 65% of the total area of Swaziland. The biotic factors have much reduced the original area of vegetation cover which has resulted in the use of non-conventional material like cow dung, maize stalks, leaves of Aloe marlothii (inhlaba) and tall grass for fuel. The commercial forests are located far from the population centres, thus making transportation of the forest waste an uneconomic venture.

The Forestry Section, under the Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives, is working in close co-operation with the Rural Development Area (R.D.A.) programme to raise the general standard of living in the rural areas by establishing woodlots. In the current five-year National Development Plan, the Government plans to establish 13 000 ha of woodlots, carry out an indigenous forest inventory, implement forest legislation and train forestry personnel at all levels.

With the assistance of R.D.A. Project Managers, the donga-ridden areas on the biotically induced marginal land are fenced off and then planted with suitable tree species.

Black wattle, Acacia mearnsii, introduced in Swaziland at the beginning of this century, is predomminantly used for bark production. It covers 5 000 ha on Swazi Nation Land and 2 500 ha on Title Deed Land. Lack of proper management of black wattle has turned it into “jungles” in the Highveld, where land is not used for agricultural production. The yield of wet wattle bark is low on Title Deed Land, i.e. 15 to 20 t/ha. The bark is marketed on a basic bark quota system managed by a wattle growers committee of Pietermaritzburg. Wattle growers of Swaziland have now formed a cooperative to enable them to transport the bark economically.

The spread of black wattle has checked the formation of dongas in biotically induced marginal areas, but at the same time there is a general resentment among the rural community who believe it is eating up their grazing land. The public believe also that eucalypts are responsible for the drying up of streams and encouraging lightning in the rural areas.

Indigenous Acacia species are drought resistant, more favoured as fuelwood, but their MAI is very low and their seed is very difficult to collect and extract. Even when using exotic tree species in establishing woodlots, proper provenances are not easy to obtain.

Agro-forestry is being undertaken particularly in RDA's where individual farmers get tree seedlings from the forestry nurseries and plant them among agricultural crops.     

黑龙江省西部半干旱地区17种乡土园林地被植物种子发芽试验

进行了黑龙江西部半干旱地区17种乡土园林地被植物的25℃恒温和15℃12h与25℃12h变温2个处理的种子发芽试验,计算了发芽率、发芽势、发芽指数、日均发芽率。结果表明,12种地被植物在25℃恒温和15／25℃的条件下种子发芽率高于70％,可选择种子繁殖;15／25℃交替变温对地被植物种子发芽有促进作用。     

Preserve and produce: experience in implementing payments for environmental services in two indigenous communities in the Northern and Southern ranges of Oaxaca,Mexico

Payments for environmental services (PES) are conservation instruments in place in various Latin American countries. They are generally undergoing adjustment and implementation changes, and they are widely implemented in indigenous communities. This article aims to suggest a relevant group of context variables in PES implementation. Characterizing the local context of two indigenous communities located in Oaxaca, Mexico, and analyzing the relationship between the local context and PES implementation and outcomes perceptions.

The work is based on 75 surveys administered to beneficiary families of the instrument in the two localities. The results suggest three conclusions:

The pertinence of the nine focal variables: “Forest cover, Opportunity costs, Livelihoods, Trust and cooperation, Motivations toward conservation, Management practices, Internal organization, Land tenure and Rules for the management and use” to the characterization of the local context. And the relevance of the new focal variable “Presence and experience with Civil Society Organizations”.

The coincidence between the contextual variables and the determinants of the success of conservation instruments.

Finally, the incidence of “Trust and cooperation” and “Internal organization” in the implementation of equitable PES schemes. And the importance of linking sustainable production to PES conservation schemes.     

广东传统林业乡土知识系统与乡村林业

广东省山区居民人口多，且多居住在林区。山区人民在长期生产和生活实践中，对其聚居地的森林资源产生了深刻的认识和了解，并对其赖以生存的森林资源形成了独特的利用与管理的传统知识和经验。文章对广东乡土林业传统管理与利用进行了初步探讨。     

Changes in soil properties related to conversion of savannah woodland into pine and eucalyptus plantations,Northern Nigeria

Soil properties associated with six age-grade plantations of Pinus oocarpa Schiede and Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh., respectively, including nearby natural vegetation, were compared in the savannah zone of Nigeria. The soil organic matter, total nitrogen and exchangeable nutrients first show declining values with the increasing age of the plantation, then an increase and finally steady or declining values in the 0–15 cm soil depth. Usually the differences between the two youngest plantations and the oldest plantations, and the natural vegetation, were significant. In the 20–30 cm soil depth the properties showed a decrease or steady values over time, with the three oldest plantations showing significant differences from the natural vegetation. The soil pH showed an increased acidity over time. There was little difference in the soil properties between the two tree species. The implications of the results are discussed in relation to sustaining productivity and soil fertility. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Chloride and carbonate salinity tolerance in Mimusops zeyheri seedlings during summer and winter shoot flushes

Shoot flushes alternate with root flushes and the evergreen red milkwood (Mimusops zeyheri Sond.) fruit tree has winter (May–July) and summer (October-December) shoot flushes in southern hemisphere. Fruit of this plant contain high vitamin C and the tree is being researched and bred for arid inland southern Africa regions. Climate change predictions suggested that by 2030 the regions would experience high temperatures (>45°C), recurrent floods and repeated droughts, which are associated with increased salinity challenges. The objective of this study was to determine the degree of salt tolerance in M. zeyheri seedlings to chloride and carbonate salinity during summer and winter shoot flushes under microplot conditions. Treatments, comprising untreated control, NaCl, KCl, CaCl₂ and Na₂CO₃ each at 1.0 molar (M) solutions, were applied weekly for eight weeks. During both seasons, CaCl₂ and Na₂CO₃ salinity had significant effects on soil pH and EC. During summer, salt types increased (106%–253%) dry shoot mass and reduced (53%–79%) root/shoot ratio. During winter, Na₂CO₃ salinity increased (114%) dry shoot mass, but the effects were not different to those induced by NaCl and CaCl₂ salinity. All other plant growth variables were not affected by salt type. Salt type had significant effects on assimilation of selected nutrient elements in leaf tissues of M. zeyheri seedlings during winter. Sodium chloride did not have significant effects on nutrient elements, whereas KCl, CaCl₂ and Na₂CO₃ significantly affected selected macronutrient elements and Zn. In conclusion, effects of chloride and carbonate salinity on M. zeyheri seedlings were both season- and salt type-specific, with seedlings displaying some degree of salt tolerance to chloride and carbonate salinity.     

Decolonising Pacific research,building Pacific research communities and developing Pacific research tools: The case of the talanoa and the faafaletui in Samoa

In building Samoan academic researcher capacity in Samoa, we argue that there is a need to first establish the kind of researcher community advocated by Linda Tuhiwai Smith, and to do so through developing research tools, such as the talanoa and faafaletui, in partnership with researcher capacity‐building initiatives such as the applied postgraduate social and health research methods course (coded PUBX731‐HSA505) run by the Centre for International Health, University of Otago, in partnership with the National University of Samoa. This paper offers a commentary on the talanoa and faafaletui as Pacific research methodologies, and asks what its value might be for researchers in Samoa. It reflects on the learning experiences of staff and students of the applied social and health research methods course in relation to the talanoa and faafaletui as Pacific research methodologies or methods. It concludes that developing Pacific research and researcher capacity in Pacific Island countries, such as Samoa, must include opening up spaces within these communities to critically engage what is Pacific or Samoan or indigenous about these research tools, methods or methodologies, and how they might differ in form or substance from other methods or methodologies.