Potential climate change effects on the distribution of agricultural grassland in England and Wales

Abstract. The spatial distribution of agricultural grassland in England and Wales has been assessed using a land evaluation model applied to information describing soils, climate and topography on a 5 × 5 km grid. The model calculates land suitability for grassland from assessments of trafficability/poaching risk and yield class. The spatial distribution of agricultural grassland was modelled for a 30 year climatic baseline (1941–1970) and for incremental changes in temperature and proportional changes in precipitation relative to that baseline.
Model estimates for the current distribution of grassland suitability agree well with observed data of actual grassland distribution. The best suited land occurs in south west England, Wales, the Welsh borders and Cheshire with fragmented areas of well suited land in north west England and on the Pens and Humberhead levels.
The climatic sensitivity analysis suggests that grassland production in England and Wales is resilient to small perturbations in mean temperature (up to +2°C) and precipitation (±10%). The effect of increasing temperature by 1°C is almost completely offset by precipitation increases of 10% resulting in little change to the distribution of grassland suitability. However, greater temperature changes (+ 4°C) have a major influence on the ability of land to support intensively managed grassland because of increased drought stress. Results indicate that a change in the climate comparable with current best estimates for the future would benefit grassland on good quality land at higher altitudes.     

A survey of the production and use of animal manures in England and Wales

Abstract. A survey of manure management practice was undertaken in 1996, by postal questionnaire submitted to a stratified sample of egg and broiler producers in England and Wales. Out of a target of 500 laying hen and 500 broiler (chickens produced for meat) production units in the survey sample, 356 (36%) returned questionnaires. The survey provided information on amount and type of manure production, manure storage and land application strategies (timing, techniques and awareness of nutrient content). Within the survey, no attempt was made to differentiate between organic and conventional production systems. About 45% of manure production was estimated to come from layer holdings, 55% from broiler litter. It was estimated that 70% of the national manure production is litter‐based and about 30% are droppings collected without litter. Sawdust/shavings are the most popular bedding material, with an average final depth of 100 mm for broilers and 140 mm on litter‐based layer units. Commonly, storage is available within housing for at least the length of the cropping cycle (6 weeks in broiler production, or 12 months in deep pit laying houses), around 60% of poultry manure is stored for a period following removal from the house, most commonly for 3‐6 months. Overall, autumn was the peak period for manure spreading, with over 40% of laying hen manure and 50% of broiler manure applied at that time. On grassland, spreading was reasonably evenly distributed throughout the year but autumn application was favoured for arable crops, especially before the establishment of cereals and root crops, overall, almost 50% of layer and broiler manure was applied in the autumn. In the survey, up to 10% of manures were claimed to be incorporated within a day of application and about 60% within a week of application, presumably because of concern about odour nuisance. Around 25% of poultry manure was applied by contractors. A high proportion of farmers (c. 40% with layers, c. 60% with broilers) exported manures from their holdings, the proportion removed amounting to almost 90% on these farms. Although evidence elsewhere indicates that farmers make little allowance for manures in planning crop fertilizer inputs, the survey responses suggested that farmers do make an effort to allow for manures but that their confidence in the advice available to them is lacking, or they may have other technical reasons for not taking advantage of the manurial value. Information provided by the survey is of significant importance to policy makers (e.g. for the construction of environmental emissions inventories), researchers, consultants and farmers.     

Predictive modelling of illegal fishing in no‐take marine protected areas

Illegal fishing is an acknowledged problem within no‐take areas (NTAs), which are frequently used as a marine conservation management tool. While gathering data on illegal fishing is difficult, it is necessary, as these data enable increased efficiency of compliance patrols, where resources are inherently limited. In particular, information about short‐term temporal variations in illegal fishing in NTAs is needed to guide management and compliance efforts. To address this knowledge gap, daily variations in illegal fishing effort were examined using surveillance cameras at two sites in New South Wales, Australia. Generalised linear modelling (GLM) identified that illegal fishing was significantly greater on non‐working days and during periods with no rain, light winds and slight seas. The GLM developed provided useful predictions of illegal activity in both the NTA used to build the model and in a second nearby NTA. The study demonstrated that illegal fishing was principally concentrated on days with good boating conditions and was greater at the study site closer to boat launching facilities. These insights will assist with future targeting of enforcement, community outreach and management efforts, which should focus on days and sites with an increased likelihood of illegal fishing.     

Effect of Planting Method on the Growth of Alnus glutinosa and Quercus petraea in Compacted Opencast Coal‐Mine Spoils,South Wales

Land degradation on officially ‘reclaimed’ opencast coal‐mine sites is a widespread problem in South Wales. This project explores methods suitable for use by community volunteers seeking to effect local environmental improvement by restoring geoecological self‐sustainability on lands that are commonly affected by extreme auto‐compaction and low soil nutrient status. This paper describes a formally established 7‐year experiment designed to assess the effect of three alternative tree planting strategies used in the forestation of such lands. These are notch planting (e.g. forestry), pit planting (e.g. parks and gardens) and trench planting (e.g. orchard terraces). The study explores tree survival and growth for two species commonly used in land reclamation contexts: alder [Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn] and Welsh or Durmast Oak [Quercus petraea (Matt.) Liebl]. t‐testing of the results shows that survival and growth rates for both species tend to be significantly better for trench planting than for pit planting than for notch planting. Differences in mortality between pit‐planted and trench‐planted trees become less significant during the experiment while differences in growth increase with time. The conclusion is that providing a loosened, lower density, rooting substrate significantly improves both the growth and the survival rates of trees planted in compacted Welsh surface coal‐mine spoils and that trench planting is more effective than parks and gardens‐style pit planting, which is more effective than forestry‐style notch planting. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

A survey to assess the extent of soil water erosion in lowland England and Wales

Abstract. A study of soil water erosion was undertaken between 1982 and 1986 in 17 areas of lowland England and Wales. Air photographs were taken annually, these were checked to identify erosion events and a sample of 392 eroded fields visited between 1983 and 1986. Erosion was most common in fields drilled with winter cereals (39% of cases), which was the crop considered by farmers to be at greatest risk of erosion. Estimated crop losses were greater than 10% for only 5% of fields. 'Clean up' costs were incurred on 15% of the fields studied. Attempts at contour ploughing and planting/drilling appeared to result in more severe erosion, than working up and down the slope. Farmers considered that the main reason for erosion on their farms was arable cropping, and the presence of compacted wheelings/tramlines. Fields where hedges had been removed in the last 20 years suffered from erosion marginally more frequently than other fields. Field slope alone was not found to be a major factor in the occurrence of erosion, with almost 60% of erosion events on slopes of less than 7°. Erosion occurred at least every other year in half the fields studied.     

Implementation of Green Building Design Strategies Needs Whole Process Control and Supervision

Whether the intention of green building design can be realized in buildings needs to be verified in practice.This study firstly investigates the basic climate conditions including the monthly average temperatures,humidity,wind directions,and wind speeds in Sydney,Australia,based on which it introduces some passive design features such as natural ventilation,thermal mass,natural lighting and shading control of an educational and office building in the University of New South Wales.Then,it reviews some problems identified from the post-occupancy stage of the building and discusses the strategies to solve the problems.Finally,it suggests that to implement the design intentions and ensure the expected performance of green buildings,attentions should be paid to supervise and direct implementation of the green design strategies and techniques in the whole process(from preliminary design,working drawing design,construction,to the occupancy stage) of building practice.     

The ecology and conservation of Llyn Idwal and Llyn Cwellyn (Snowdonia National Park,North Wales,UK)—two lakes proposed as special areas of conservation in Europe

1. This paper gives a comprehensive account of the ecology of Llyn Idwal and Llyn Cwellyn, two nationally well known and internationally important conservation lakes in Snowdonia National Park, North Wales. Idwal has a small but precipitous catchment with relatively large areas of heathland and base rich bare rock. Cwellyn has a larger catchment with a substantial proportion of woodland, including coniferous plantations, and a long history of human activity. 2. The chemistry of the waters in both lakes is indicative of nutrient-poor conditions but Idwal exhibits relatively high alkalinity and pH values. 3. The diatom floras are typical of nutrient-poor upland waters, with species composition reflecting the alkalinity differences. Isoetids form a dominant component of the macrophyte floras, with the most diverse assemblage recorded at Idwal. 4. The zooplankton communities are distinctive, with only a small number of species occurring in both lakes. The macroinvertebrate faunas are dominated by insect taxa typical of stony shores. Supplementary stocking of the Idwal trout population has been reported. 5. The conservation importance of the sites lies primarily in their representation of nutrient-poor mountain lake systems and the macrophyte assemblages which include a number of rare species. In addition, a genetically unique arctic charr population is present in Cwellyn. 6. Impoundment, water abstraction, acidification, eutrophication and the recreational use of the sites are identified as potential environmental impacts. The conservation management of the sites is related to the extent of the reserve boundaries and catchment activities. Aspects of the future management and environmental monitoring of Idwal and Cwellyn as Special Areas of Conservation under the European Community Council Directive on the conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora are discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Twenty-five years of monitoring pH and nutrient status of soils in England and Wales

Abstract. The Representative Soil Sampling Scheme of England and Wales was started in 1969. During the 25 year period 1969–1993 mean soil pH values under arable and ley-arable cropping changed little, but under grassland they fell by 0.3 units. Under arable cropping, mean available phosphorus declined whilst available potassium increased fairly steeply for the first eight years then declined again to near the start value by 1993. No significant changes in soil phosphorus and potassium levels were found under ley-arable cropping, but the percentage of fields under ley-arable rotations declined from 33% to 14%. Under grassland, phosphorus and potassium levels both declined, although potassium levels rose initially before falling.
For this report England and Wales were also divided into five regions. Wales and the West Country had the lowest pH values; these regions together with the Northern region were also found to have declining pH values. Phosphorus and potassium concentrations have been falling in the Northern region which stands out as having the lowest current potassium status with 20% of all fields deficient at index 0.
Changes in pH and nutrients are discussed for soils sampled following the main arable crops. The largest changes found were the reductions in phosphorus and potassium in soils after potatoes. In 1993 almost one in ten sugarbeet crop soils had an excessive phosphorus level (index 5+) giving an increased risk of water pollution by this element.
Under arable cropping the proportion of soils with low (< 1.8%) organic matter declined. Average soil organic matter levels for all crops and grass have remained static during the period. It is concluded that agricultural soils in England and Wales have not contributed to an increase in the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide.     

Rural land use in England and Wales and the delivery to the adjacent seas of nitrogen, phosphorus and atrazine

Abstract. In an exploratory study land use in 27 catchments covering most of England and Wales was assessed (using the land use classification devised by the then Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, now a part of the Centre for Ecology and Hydrology) and related to loads and concentrations of total nitrogen, phosphorus (mainly as orthophosphate (Op)) and some pesticides in river flows reaching the surrounding seas in the years 1990–1993. There are good correlations between seven land use types and the concentrations of total nitrogen ( r =0.83) and Op ( r =0.73) entering the seas. The correlations for individual land use types are best for arable land: total nitrogen, r =0.77; Op, r =0.65; and are positive. However, except for the mixed arable and grassland, the relationships between the other five land use types (improved grassland, upland grassland, upland moorland, upland mixed, and afforested and upland) and contaminant concentrations are negative. If data from the Mersey catchment are discarded, on the grounds that contaminant concentrations in the river seem unduly high, correlations between land use and contaminant concentrations reaching the seas are improved for all land uses: total nitrogen, r =0.89; Op, r =0.83; and atrazine, r =0.78. Loads and concentrations of pollutants in rivers entering the sea could be used to validate models of losses from catchments. Models may need to take greater account of runoff and transport of soil particles than they do presently.     

Epidemiology of Toxocariasis in England and Wales

Toxocara infection occurs through ingestion of parasite eggs excreted by dogs and cats, and can cause severe morbidity. The burden of disease in England and Wales is not well described, and the impact of public health campaigns conducted in the mid‐1990s is uncertain. This paper uses data from two extensive databases to explore the trends in this disease in England and Wales from the 1970s to 2009.