Prevalence and risk factors for brucellosis in domestic yak Bos grunniens and their herders in a transhumant pastoralist system of Dolpo,Nepal

Disease caused by Brucella spp. represents the most common bacterial zoonotic infection worldwide. The distribution and public health impact of these infections in Nepal's mountain regions are poorly characterized. This cross sectional study assesses the burden of brucellosis on transhumant pastoralists and their yak in and around Shey Phoksundo National Park, Nepal. Objectives were to: (1) estimate individual animal prevalence of Brucella-seropositive yak, (2) identify herd- and individual-level risk factors associated with Brucella seropositivity in individual yak, and (3) identify herd-level risk factors associated with reported human brucellosis-like symptoms in a household. A case of household symptoms was defined as the reported occurrence within the previous year of at least one of three acute symptoms (chills, fever, night chills) and one of two chronic symptoms (joint pain, swollen joint(s)) in one or both of two individuals interviewed in a household. Two-hundred-ninety-seven yak from 61 herds were sampled, and 61 household questionnaires were completed. Estimated true prevalence was 0.22 (95% CI: 0.17; 0.28). Poisson regression with generalized estimating equations was used to account for repeated measures within a cluster (herd). Yak in herds reporting abortion occurrence within the previous year were 2.3 times more likely to be seropositive than those in herds not reporting abortion (95% CI: 1.2; 4.2, p = 0.01). For every 10 animal increase in herd number, individual animal seropositivity risk increased by 30% (95% CI: 10%; 50%, p = 0.001). Male yak were 0.7 times as likely to be seropositive as female yak (95% CI: 0.5; 0.9, p = 0.01). Three to five year old yak were 2 times more likely to be seropositive than yak <3 years old (95% CI: 1.3; 3.2, p = 0.003), and yak >5 years old were 4.9 times more likely to be seropositive than yak <3 years old (95% CI: 2.9; 8.1, p < 0.001). Risk of reported brucellosis-like symptoms at the household level was 2 (95% CI: 1.1; 3.5, p = 0.02) times greater for households with herds with >1 reactor, and was 3.6 (95% CI: 1.4; 9.2, p = 0.008) times greater for households reporting the practice of raw milk consumption. These results indicate that yak seropositivity for Brucella spp. is widespread in the region, and is associated with reported human disease. This epidemiologic understanding is essential to the identification of public health opportunities at the interface of Himalayan livestock populations and the transhumant pastoralists that depend on them.     

Farmers’ willingness to pay for community integrated pest management training in Nepal

The concept of community integrated pest management (IPM), which is well developed in Indonesia and Vietnam, was recently introduced in Nepal. However, it has not been widely practiced, due mainly to lack of financial and technical support. This study determined an individual’s willingness to pay (WTP) for community IPM training. Determinants of WTP were identified; and sample average estimates, opportunity costs of training, and probability values were used to estimate WTP for a group of households. Estimated WTP revealed that individuals were in favor of community IPM, hence it could be implemented with the support of local villagers. Community IPM demand functions showed that individuals’ knowledge and awareness of pesticide pollution are crucial for implementation. The annual welfare gained by providing five days community IPM training was calculated to be US $25.23 per household. Kishor Atreya has a Master’s degree in Environmental Science and is currently working at Alternative Development and Research Center (ADRC) as Research Director. ADRC – Nepal is a national non-governmental organization dedicated to interdisciplinary research for alternative development. His research interests are in development of agri-environmental indicators, land and water quality, land use change and degradation, agricultural intensification and environment, and economic valuation of environmental pollution.     

Soil fertility management in the mid-hills of Nepal: Practices and perceptions

Sustaining soil fertility is essential to the prosperity of many households in the mid-hills of Nepal, but there are concerns that the breakdown of the traditional linkages between forest, livestock, and cropping systems is adversely affecting fertility. This study used triangulated data from surveys of households, discussion groups, and key informants in 16 wards in eastern and western Nepal to determine the existing practices for soil fertility management, the extent of such practices, and the perception of the direction of changes in soil fertility. The two principal practices for maintaining soil fertility were the application of farmyard manure (FYM) and of chemical fertilizer (mainly urea and diammonium phosphate). Green manuring, in-situ manuring, slicing terrace risers, and burning plant residues are rarely practiced. FYM usage was variable with more generally applied to khet land (average 6053 kg fresh weight manure ha^–1) than to bari land (average 4185 kg fresh weight manure ha^–1) with manure from goats and poultry preferred above that from cows and buffaloes. Almost all households (98%) apply urea to khet land and 87% to bari land, with 45% applying diammonium phosphate to both types of land. Application rates and timings of applications varied considerably both within and between wards suggesting poor knowledge transfer between the research and farming communities. The benefits of chemical fertilizers in terms of ease of application and transportation in comparison with FYM, were perceived to outweigh the widely reported detrimental hardening of soil associated with their continued usage. Among key informants, FYM applied in conjunction with chemical fertilizer was the most popular amendment, with FYM alone preferred more than chemical fertilizer alone – probably because of the latters long-term detrimental effects. Key informant and householder surveys differed in their perception of fertility changes in the last decade probably because of differences in age and site-specific knowledge. All key informants felt that fertility had declined but among households, only about 40% perceived a decline with the remainder about evenly divided between no change and an increase. Householders with small landholdings (< 0.5 ha) were more likely to perceive increasing soil fertility while those with larger landholdings (> 2 ha) were more likely to perceive declining fertility. Perceived changes in soil fertility were not related to food self-sufficiency. The reasons for the slow spread of new technologies within wards and the poor understanding of optimal use of chemical fertilizers in conjunction with improved quality FYM may repay further investigation in terms of sustaining soil fertility in this region.Colin Pilbeam graduated from the University of Oxford with an MA in Agriculture and Forest Sciences. He spent 11 years as a Post-Doctoral Research Fellow in the Department of Soil Science, The University of Reading researching nitrogen and water dynamics in cropping systems in Kenya, Syria, and Nepal. He is now the manager of research programs at Cranfield School of Management.Sudarshan Bhakta Mathema is a senior agricultural economist based in Kathmandu, Nepal. After serving the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, in Nepal for 23 years, he joined the UNs Food and Agriculture Organization as the Farming Systems Economist for 2years. Currently, Dr. Mathema is the Manager of the Hill Agriculture Research Project with the Department for International Development, UK. Dr Mathema has major expertise in the fields of farming systems research and development, participatory research and development, competitive grant systems, sustainable rural livelihoods, impact assessment, project management and implementation, agricultural extension methods, and various types of socio-economic research. He has worked as a consultant for various national and international institutes. He has published papers and reports in the field of agriculture, particularly focusing on Nepal.Peter Gregory has been the Professor of Soil Science at the University of Reading since 1994. His research focuses on the interactions between plant roots and soils and on the development of sustainable systems of crop production. He has worked in Australia, Syria, Nepal, India, and West Africa and is the chair of Global Environmental Change and Food Systems – an international research project on food security.Padma Bahadur Shakya is an Agricultural Economist who has worked for the Department of Agriculture under the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives in Nepal for more than 20 years. He has also been a short-term consultant for various national and international organizations such as FAO, the UNs World Food Programme, Swiss Development Corporation, Asian Development Bank, JICA, HARP, and several local NGOs. Currently, he is affiliated with the Agriculture Perspective Plan Support Programme, implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives.     

Species diversity and regeneration of old-growth seasonally dry Shorea robusta forests following gap formation

Diversity and regeneration of woody species were investigated in two ecological niches viz. gap and intact vegetation in old-growth seasonally dry Shorea robusta (Gaertn. f.) forests in Nepal. We also related varieties of diversity measures and regeneration attributes to gap characteristics. Stem density of tree and shrub components is higher in the gap than in the intact vegetation. Seedling densities of S. robusta and Terminalia alata (B. Heyne ex Roth.) are higher in the gap than in the intact vegetation, while contrary result is observed for T. bellirica (Gaertn. ex Roxb.) and Syzigium cumini (L. Skeels) in term of seedling density. The complement of Simpson index, Evenness index, and species-individual ratio in the seedling layer are lower in the gap than the intact vegetation. Gap size can explain species richness and species establishment rate. Gaps created by multiple tree falls in different years have higher seedling density of S. robusta than gaps created by single and/or multiple tree falls in the same year. In conclusion, gaps maintain species diversity by increasing seedling density, and favor regeneration of Sal forests. In addition to gap size, other gap attributes also affect species diversity and regeneration. Foundation Project: The study was supported by Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA).     

林分间隙形成后季节性干旱的娑罗双树原始林物种多样性及苗木再生(英文)

本文调查了尼泊尔季节性干旱的娑罗双树原始林两种生态位(间隙和全郁闭)下树种多样性及苗木再生情况,并对物种多样性指标和苗木再生属性与林分间隙特征进行了相关性分析。结果表明,间隙生态位下乔木和灌木立木度高于全郁闭。间隙生态位下娑罗双树和榄仁树的幼苗密度也高于全郁闭,但是油榄仁和海南蒲桃的比较结果恰好相反。在幼苗层物种多样性指标(complement of Simpson index,Evenness index,and species-individual ratio)在间隙生态位要低于全郁闭条件。间隙大小能够解释物种丰富度和物种建立速率。多年多样伐木形成的林分间隙下娑罗双树幼苗密度要高于同一年内单一或多样伐木。结论:林分间隙的物种多样性通过增加幼苗密度来维持,并且适于娑罗双树再生。此外,林分间隙的其它属性也会影响物种多样性和苗木再生。     

Ecological and economical sustainability assessment of community forest management in Nepal: A reality check

This study analyzes the sustainability of community forest management, representing four forest types of two physiographic region Hills and Terai of Nepal. We assess the sustainability based on species composition, stand density, growing stock volume, and growth-to-removal ratio using inventory data of 109 permanent forest plots from four consecutive intervals of three to five years. In addition, forest users, forest committee members, and forest officials were consulted. We observed increment on the representation of economically valuable tree species in all forest types of both regions. The pole-size tree dominates in all forest types with declining number of trees and regeneration. In case of Hills forests, they were over-harvested until 2013 but were under-harvested in the recent period. In contrary, forests were under-harvested in the Terai. We found that ecological objectives of sustainable management are fully achieved while economic benefits remained unharnessed where harvesting is far below the growth. We conclude that maintaining a large number of trees may contribute to ecological but not on economical sustainability. We argue to rationalize annual harvest in all categories of the forest to enhance resource conditions together with regular benefits to the local communities.     

Knowledge and Practices of Pig Farmers Regarding Japanese Encephalitis in Kathmandu,Nepal

Japanese encephalitis (JE) is the single largest cause of viral encephalitis in the world and has been endemic in Nepal since the early 1980s. Since then, it has spread from its origins in lowland plains to the Kathmandu Valley as well as in hill and mountain districts. Pigs are amplifying hosts for the virus. The Nepal government has been encouraging the development of pig farming as a means of poverty alleviation. Whereas other countries have reduced JE through vaccination programmes and improvements in pig husbandry, these options are not economically possible in Nepal. The objective of this study was to examine the occupational risk of pig farmers in Nepal and to determine their level of knowledge and practice of JE prevention techniques. We surveyed 100 randomly selected pig farmers in the Kathmandu District and found that pig farmers were exposed to many JE risk factors including poverty and close proximity to pigs, rice paddy fields and water birds, which are the definitive hosts for the virus. Forty‐two percent of the farmers had heard of JE, 20% associated it with mosquito bites and 7% named pigs as risk factors. Few protective measures were taken. None of the farmers were vaccinated against JE nor were any pigs, despite an ongoing human vaccination campaign. This farming community had little ownership of land and limited education. JE education programmes must consider gender differences in access to public health information as there were an equal number of male and female farmers. We provide findings that can inform future JE education programmes for this vulnerable population.     

Adoption of management and technological practices by fishpond operators in Nepal

Abstract

This study examines adoption of major management and technological practices by fishpond operators in Nepal. A socio‐economic survey was conducted in 1994 covering 358 fishpond operators in eight of the 21 aquaculture production districts of Nepal. Factor and multiple regression models were employed in data analysis. The results indicate that 30 adoption practices can be summarized by six indices. The study suggests that the education level of fishpond operators plays an important role in increased adoption of management and technological practices. Ethnicity, geographical location, smaller fish farm size, access to inputs and cash reserves and proximity to market infrastructure also increase the probability of adoption of desirable management and technological practices.     

Sterility in Wheat and Response of Field Crops to Applied Boron in the Indo-Gangetic Plains

Summary

Results of field experiments across the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) region indicates that soil B deficiency induces sterility in wheat and results in poor crop yields of legumes and cereals. The deficiency of soil B and the response of crops to applied B generally increases from the northwestern to the eastern end of the IGP, this trend being influenced by the distribution of the soil parent material and the variation in the climatic conditions within the IGP. An earlier FAO study rated Nepal as the lowest of thirty countries in its soil B status and showed that a higher soil B deficiency problem exists in the eastern half of the Indian-IGP, therefore crop response to applied B is more likely in these areas. Few studies have made qualitative and quantitative assessment of sterility in wheat in the IGP and the positive response of other crops to B application also suggest B deficiency related sterility problems in these crops. Micronutrient research in the IGP often rates Zn followed by Fe and Mn deficiencies in some instances, as its major soil micronutrient deficiency problems. However, the deficiency of B perhaps is as important if not more, than Fe and Mn deficiency. The awareness of soil B deficiency is not as widespread as its occurrence in the IGP region. This article reviews and discusses the sterility problems in wheat and the response of several field crops to applied B to highlight the growing importance of soil B deficiency in the IGP.     

Has the introduction of modern rice varieties changed rice genetic diversity in a high-altitude region of Nepal?

We surveyed the uptake of three modern rice varieties by farmers in high-altitude villages in the Kaski district of Nepal and found that their uptake had displaced some traditional landraces in the district. The three varieties, Machhapuchhre-3 (M-3), Machhapuchhre-9 (M-9) and Lumle 2, were developed using client-oriented, participatory plant breeding methods and the first was introduced to farmers in 1996. By 2004 up to 60% of the land area was used to grow these modern varieties. Molecular markers (SSR) were used to assay levels of genetic diversity to test if adoption of modern varieties in the place of landraces had changed genetic diversity. The modern varieties were found to contain diverse alleles with a high proportion from the local parent variety, Chhomrong Dhan. We found a high level of allelic richness in the landraces, and although seven had been dropped in favour of the modern varieties, other diverse landraces were still being cultivated by farmers in the study villages on up to 40% of the rice area. Genetic diversity may be maintained even when landraces are displaced by modern varieties. Using a model we found that the partial replacement of landraces increased genetic diversity if the modern varieties were adopted on up to 65% of the area. Only above these levels did overall diversity decline.