Estimating leaf area index of mature temperate forests using regressions on site and vegetation data

Canopy gap fraction and leaf area index (LAI) were measured using hemispherical photography in 91 mature forests across Switzerland, including coniferous, broadleaved and mixed stands. The gap fraction and LAI derived from five photographs per site could be reproduced with a high coefficient of determination (R² > 0.7) by regression against simple stand parameters obtained from vegetation surveys: coverages of the tree, shrub and herb layers, and tree height. The method appeared to be robust across the different types of forests. Applied to 981 sites across Switzerland, the regression model produced LAI values ranging from 1.4 to 6.7. These predictions were compared with site variables not included in the regression. LAI appeared limited by the altitude, with maximal values decreasing by one third from 400 to 2000 m above see level. Water availability was also clearly a limitation at sites with a negative water balance, i.e. where the yearly potential evapotranspiration exceeded the precipitation. High or low values of a humidity index based on the ground vegetation also corresponded to a limitation of the LAI, with shorter trees at dry sites and more open canopies at wet sites. Compared to optical measurements (including hemispherical photography), our regression method is fast and inexpensive. Such an approach appears very promising for obtaining reliable estimates of LAI for many sites with low costs. These estimates can then be fed into process models at the stand level.     

Run-time calibration of simulation models by integrating remote sensing estimates of leaf area index and canopy nitrogen

Dynamic simulations models may enable for farmers the evaluation of crop and soil management strategies, or may trigger crop and soil management strategies if they are used as warning systems, e.g. for drought risks and for nutrients shortage. Predictions by simulation models may differ from field observations for a variety of reasons, and such deviations can be revealed instantly by traditional or by new field monitoring techniques. The objective of this study was to improve simulation results by integrating remote sensing observations during the growing season in the simulation (i.e. run-time calibration). The Rotask 1.0 simulation model was used as it simulates daily interactions between climate (radiation temperature, vapour pressure, wind speed, precipitation), soils (water holding capacities, soil organic matter dynamics, evaporation) and crops (light interception, dry matter production, nitrogen uptake, transpiration). Various run-time calibration scenarios for replacing simulated values by remotely observed values were tested. For a number of times in the growing season, simulated values of leaf area index (LAI) and canopy nitrogen contents were replaced with values estimated from remote sensing. Field experiments were carried out in the Netherlands in 1997 (validation) and 1998 (calibration) with potato variety Bintje. Destructive field samplings were performed to follow LAI and canopy nitrogen development in the growing season. Remote sensing observations at canopy level were taken by CropScan™ equipment, covering the electromagnetic spectrum between 460–810 nm in eight spectral bands. LAI and canopy nitrogen were monitored at various moments throughout the growing season by relating them with vegetation indices (VI) that were calculated from the combination of specific remote sensing bands. The results of this study show that run-time calibration of mechanistic simulation models may enhance simulation accuracy, depending on the method how additional information is integrated. It is advised to synchronize dry matter balances and internal nitrogen balances in accordance with adjustments to observed calibration variables (in this case LAI and canopy nitrogen content). It is shown an integrated approach follows the actual crop–soil system more closely, which is helpful for specific crop management and precision agriculture in general. Run-time calibration with variables that can be estimated from remote sensing observations gives more accurate simulation results of variables that can not be observed directly, e.g. the evolution of soil inorganic nitrogen contents. High frequencies of remote sensing observations and interpolation in between them, allow reconstructing the evolution of LAI and canopy nitrogen contents to be integrated in the simulation, thereby increasing simulation accuracy of other model variables.     

基于植被指数的宁夏灌区春小麦叶面积指数模型

利用宁夏灌区典型代表站（永宁站）2005-2008年连续4a的大田春小麦叶面积观测资料和同期MODIS/Terra资料,对LAI（叶面积指数）与10种植被指数（MODIS-VI）间的相关性进行了分析。得出,抽穗-乳熟期所有植被指数与LAI的相关性均不显著,三叶-拔节期和三叶-抽穗期归一化差异光谱指数（NDSI）、再次归一化光谱指数（RDSI）与LAI相关性不显著外,其他指数与LAI均显著相关,因此,用分段函数模拟全生育期LAI才能达到最佳效果。经检验,模拟值与实测值之间直线方程的决定系数（R2）为0.9759,均方根误差（RMSE）为0.5519,准确度（Accuracy）为1.0745,说明模型具有较好的可靠性和适用性,可为今后开展基于LAI参数的春小麦长势监测、遥感估产及作物模型中参数的动态修订等提供参考。     

Documenting improvement in leaf area index estimates from MODIS using hemispherical photos for Australian savannas

This paper compares estimates of Leaf Area Index (LAI) obtained from the MODIS (Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) collections 4.8 (MC4) and 5.0 (MC5) with ground-based measurements taken along a 900 km north-south transect through savanna in the Northern Territory, Australia. There was excellent agreement for both the magnitude and timing in the annual variation in LAI from MC5 and biometric estimates at Howard Springs, near Darwin, whereas MC4 overestimated LAI by 1-2 m² m⁻² for the first 200 days of the year. Estimates of LAI from MC5 were also compared with those obtained from the analysis of digital hemispherical photographs taken during the dry season (September 2008) based on algorithms that included random and clumped distribution of leaves. Linear regression of LAI from MC5 versus that using the clumping algorithm yielded a slope close to 1 (m = 0.98). The regression based on a random distribution of leaves yielded a slope significantly different from 1 (m = 1.37), with higher Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and bias compared to the clumped analysis. The intercept for either analysis was not significantly different from zero but inclusion of five additional sites that were visually bare or without green vegetation produced a statistically significant offset of +0.16 m² m⁻² by MC5. Overall, our results show considerable improvement of MC5 over MC4 LAI and good agreement between MC5 and ground-based LAI estimates from hemispherical photos incorporating clumping of leaves.     

A sub-continental scale living laboratory: Spatial patterns of savanna vegetation over a rainfall gradient in northern Australia

Savanna landscapes across north Australia are characterised by limited topographic variation, and in the Northern Territory, by a relatively constant decline in rainfall with distance inland. The North Australian Tropical Transect (NATT) traverses this 1000 km gradient of largely intact vegetation which provides an ideal ‘living laboratory’ and framework to investigate the influence of vegetation structural and floristic change and climate drivers on land-atmosphere exchange at a regional scale. We conducted a multidisciplinary program examining carbon, water and energy fluxes as a function of climate and vegetation change along a sub-continental environmental gradient. Initial findings are reported in this Special Issue. During the program, an intensive field campaign was undertaken during the dry season to characterise vegetation and soil properties of eight flux tower sites used to describe spatial and temporal dynamics of fluxes across this gradient. This paper provides an overview of the savanna landscapes of north Australia detailing vegetation structural and physiological change along this gradient. Above-ground woody biomass, stem density, overstorey LAI and canopy height declined along sites that spanned an 1100 mm annual rainfall gradient. Biomass ranged from 35 to 5 t C ha⁻¹ with dry season LAI ranging from ∼1 to 0.05 across savanna sites both intact and cleared for grazing. Across open-forest and woodland savanna, basal area ranged from 9.7 to 5.3 m² ha⁻¹. While structural change was significant and correlated with rainfall, leaf scale physiological properties (maximal photosynthesis, V_cmax, c_i/c_a, light use efficiency) of the dominant woody species showed little variation, despite the significant environmental gradient. It is likely that changes in structural properties dominate spatial patterns of flux as opposed to physiological plasticity or species differences along this gradient.     

Responses of fruit growth,quality, and productivity to crop load in apple cv. Ultra Red Gala/MM111

The effects of three crop load densities (4, 6 and 8 fruit per cm² of the cross-section of each tree branch, BCSA) on fruit growth, yield, fruit quality and vegetative growth were studied in apples (Malus × domestica Borkh) Ultrared Gala/MM111, from the fourth leaf (2006–2007 season) to the sixth (2008–2009 season). The maximum fruit growth rate was reached between 90 and 108 days after full bloom (DAFB), with values above 2.6 g day⁻¹. Accumulated yields to the sixth leaf reached 181, 157 and 123 Mg ha⁻¹ in the high, medium and low crop loads, respectively. Mean fruit weight decreased with increasing fruit crop load but the yields of fruit weight over 194 g were similar in all crop loads; the highest crop load exceeded the lowest crop load by 18.8 and 27.5 Mg ha⁻¹ of fruit weight of more than 172 and 154 g, respectively. The yields of harvested fruit exceeding 75% with red coloring did not show major differences, while fruit classified as 50–75% with red coloring were less common in the low crop load. No major differences were found at the end of the study in vegetative growth in the different seasons, nor in plant size. The reduction in mean fruit weight and in the percentage of fruit with good coloring was compensated by the increase in yields, thus not resulting in an effective reduction in the quality of the harvested fruit. The level of plant development reached with a semi-vigorous rootstock and high fruit loads allowed obtaining high fruit yield earlier and of good quality.     

宽台栽培大豆叶面积动态及净光合生产率

采用小区试验测定了宽台栽培、70cm行距垄作、30cm行距平作大豆的叶面积指数（LAI）和净光合生产率（NAR）。结果表明，LAI呈正态曲线变化，从大豆出苗至LAI高峰时期，宽台栽培的最大LAI出现时间比垄作和平作推迟3～6d，LAI捉高0．275～0．404，LAI＞4的天数延长5～11d。生育期平均NAR比垄作和平作高0．37～0．829／m2·d。     

Effects of Seeding Rate on Growth Duration and Accumulation and Partitioning of Dry matter in Oats

Crop management influences considerably the three components of grain yield, growth duration, growth rate, and harvest index (HI). Effects of seeding rate on these yield components in oats ( Avena sativa L.) was assessed in field experiments at the Viikki Experimental Farm, University of Helsinki, Finland (60°13'N) in 1991 and 1992. Three Finnish oat genotypes were evaluated; a long-strawed landrace cultivar, a moderately long-strawed modern cultivar, and a semi-dwarf breeding line. The following traits were measured: grain yield, days from sowing to yellow ripeness, number of tillers on main shoot, phytomass, vegetative phytomass, and their growth rates (PGR and VGR, respectively), panicle weight and its filling rate (PFR), HI, leaf area index (LAI), and at intervals, dry-matter accumulation in leaves and straw.
Increases in seeding rate significantly decreased growth duration and PGR of individual plants but increased PGR on a ground area basis. Seeding rate did not, however, affect HI. When seeding rate was increased from 200 seeds m⁻² to 500 seeds m⁻², reductions in vegetative phytomass, panicle weight, VGR, and PFR for individual plants ranged between 20 and 40 %, depending on genotype. At ≥600 seeds m⁻² differences in these components between seeding rates were modest. However, PGR, VGR, and PFR per unit ground area increased with increasing seeding rates up to 600–700 seeds m⁻². Moreover, the higher the seeding rate, the higher the peak LAI (2.7 maximum) and the earlier the canopy closure. Hence, our results showed that a seeding rate of 600–700 seeds m⁻², which resulted in uniculm growth habit, is advantageous in terms of grain yield at high latitudes due to higher biomass accumulation and subsequently greater interception of PAR.     

基于叶面积指数改进的直角双曲线模型在玉米农田生态系统中的应用

一般认为,生态系统的总初级生产力(GPP)对光合有效辐射(LAI)的响应曲线可以用直角双曲线来描述.研究表明,在不同的生长季进行模拟,模拟的直角双曲线的两个参数Amax和α值不同.为消除模型参数季节变化对模拟结果的影响,直角双曲线模型通常应用于较短的时间尺度(如半月、10d或5d),然而,这种在较短的时间尺度上进行模拟的方法过于繁琐,并且当通量数据缺失过多时,在短的时间模拟窗口上,少量的数据不足以拟合直角双曲线模型.在这种情况下,无法利用直角双曲线模型对生态系统的GPP进行准确的模拟,或者对缺失的碳通量数据进行插补.以玉米农田生态系统为例,旨在阐明生态系统的环境因子和生物因子在不同生长季对直角双曲线模型中两个参数Amax和α值的影响.结果表明,Amax与LAI具有显著的直线关系:Amax=a LAI+b(a=0.64,b=0.15,R=0.74,P=0.002).据此我们对直角双曲线模型进行了改进,用以预测半小时尺度的玉米农田生态系统GPP.与未改进的直角双曲线模型进行比较,在整个生长季进行模拟,改进的直角双曲线模型明显提高了模拟的精度;当在较短的时间窗口上进行模拟(半月时间尺度),改进的直角双曲线模型与之有着相似的精度.利用改进的双曲线模型不仅可以非常简捷地对生态系统GPP进行模拟,而且可以解释直角双曲线模型参数Amax值的连续变化,尤其是,当涡相关观测数据大量缺失时,可以很方便并且较为准确地插补缺失数据.     

滇中高原高产玉米群体光合作用及光能利用率的特点

对云南祥云县玉米高产试验田的测定表明，玉米田间自然光照强度比内地高，即使在７月中旬阴雨天，高产群体内近地面的光强仍在光补偿点之上。种植密度为９００００株／ｈｍ２，其群体最大叶面积指数为５．２，高值稳定期长达５０～６０ｄ。光合速率以灌浆中期的最大，光合最大值比内地的略低；不同生长时期及同株各叶的光合速率变化范围小；抽雄和灌浆中期无光合作用“午睡”现象，光能利用率为２．６６％，比常规栽培法的高１．２％．